ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑ; Or, the Art of Embalming; / Wherein Is Shewn the Right of Burial, and Funeral Ceremonies, Especially That of Preserving Bodies After the Egyptian Method. Together With an Accou
Date: 2018-09-02T00:00:00+00:00
Keywords: Embalming -- Early works to 1800; Burial -- Early works to 1800; Funeral rites and ceremonies -- Early works to 1800; Mummies -- Early works to 1800

The Project Gutenberg eBook of ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑ; Or, the Art of Embalming;

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑ; Or, the Art of Embalming;

Author: Thomas Greenhill

Release date: September 1, 2018 [eBook #57829]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
produced from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑ; OR, THE ART OF EMBALMING; ***

Transcriber’s Note:

The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.

The Explanation of the Frontispiece.

Reader thou in this Frontispiece may’st see

How mortal Man seeks Immortalitie;

His beauteous Frame he sees with speed decline,

And soon dissolv’d by Death, tho’ form’d by Hands Divine.

Sadness in Widows Robes deplores his State,

While the Young Brood inspect the Book of Fate;

Pensive they view the Rise and Fall of Man,
With Tears survey his Transitory Span.
But his great Soul, full of Cœlestial Flame,
Disdaining Death, strives to extend his Name;
And conscious of our too too fickle State,
Would fain elude the Force of Time and Fate:
The narrow Boundaries of Life would pass,
By Statues, Pillars, Monumental Brass,
Aspiring Pyramids, that lift on high
Their spiral Heads to reach his kindred Skie,
Which in their dark Repositories keep
The Bodies safe in their Immortal Sleep;
While healing Balm and Aromatic Spice,

Death’s odious Dissipation to their Form denies.

Death baffl’d thus by wise Chyrurgic Art,
Wounds Mortals there but with a blunted Dart;
And half the Terror of the Griesly Fiend
Is lost, when Mortal Bodies know no end.
The Bodies thus Preserv’d, the thinking Part
Men strive to keep alive by various Art,
And fine wrought Medals and Inscriptions use,
But above all the bright recording Muse;
Thro’ Time’s revolving Tide the faithful Page

Conveys their earliest Rise to the remotest Age,

While Death and Time oppose their Force in vain,

Superior Men above their Force remain;

Temples and Fanes they to the Godhead raise,

To bribe the only Power, that can destroy, with Praise.

Jove pleas’d, in Pity of the pious Race,
Two Messengers sends down the Airy space,
To raise Man’s Ashes from the silent Urn,

Which touch’d by Hermes wand resume their pristine Form.

Jove’s Royal Bird attends to bear on high
Th’ Immortal Soul up to its Native Skie,
While Fame aloud her Silver Trumpet sounds,
And with the Lawrel Wreath the Victor Crowns.
And thus Eternal lives the deathless Mind,

Which, here on Earth, no setled State could find.

ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑ:
OR, THE
Art of Embalming;
Wherein is shewn
The Right of Burial,
THE
FUNERAL CEREMONIES,
And the several Ways of
Preserving Dead Bodies
IN
Most Nations of the WORLD.
With an Account of
The particular Opinions, Experiments and Inventions of modern Physicians, Surgeons, Chymists and Anatomists.
ALSO
Some new Matter propos’d concerning a better Method of Embalming than hath hitherto been discover’d.
AND
A Pharmacopœia Galeno-Chymica, Anatomia sicca sive incruenta, &c.

In Three PARTS.

The whole Work adorn’d with variety of Sculptures.

By Thomas Greenhill, Surgeon.

LONDON: Printed for the Author.

ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑ:
OR, THE
Art of Embalming;
Wherein is shewn
The Right of Burial,
AND
FUNERAL CEREMONIES,
Especially that of
Preserving Bodies
After the EGYPTIAN Method.
TOGETHER WITH

An Account of the Egyptian Mummies, Pyramids, Subterranean Vaults and Lamps, and their Opinion of the Metempsychosis, the Cause of their Embalming.

AS ALSO

A Geographical Description of Egypt, the Rise and Course of the Nile, the Temper, Constitution and Physic of the Inhabitants, their Inventions, Arts, Sciences, Stupendous Works and Sepulchres, and other curious Observations any ways relating to the Physiology and Knowledge of this Art.

PART I.

Illustrated with a Map and Fourteen Sculptures.

By Thomas Greenhill, Surgeon.

LONDON: Printed for the Author, M DCC V.

CONTENTS

To the Right Honourable THOMAS Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery

THE PREFACE.

A List of such Noblemen and Gentlemen as have been pleas’d to Encourage this Work with Sculptures.

A List of such Noblemen and Gentlemen as have been pleas’d to Encourage this Work by Subscriptions.

Amico admodum colendo D. THOMÆ GREENHILL eximiam suam ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑΝ edenti χαίρειν καὶ εὐπραγεῖν.

Viro Admodùm Erudito Thomæ Greenhill, Chirurgo in ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑΝ, sive Artem Pollincturæ, ab illo editam.

TO HIS Ingenious Friend Mr. Thomas Greenhill.

To his Friend the Author.

ERRATA.

LETTER I.

LETTER II.

LETTER III.

A CATALOGUE OF Authors quoted in this Book.

THE TABLE

To the Right Honourable
THOMAS

Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery; Baron Herbert of Caerdiff; Lord Rosse, Par, Marmion, St. Quintin and Shurland; Lord Lieutenant of the County of Wilts and South-Wales; Knight of the most Noble Order of the Garter, and President of Her Majesties most Honourable Privy Council.

My Lord,

I count it no small Happiness, in an Age so Censorious as this, to have found a Patron so universally admir’d, that I am under no apprehension of being thought a Flatterer, should I make use of and indulge all the Liberty of a profest Panegyrist; but that is what a sense of my own Inability and Your Lordship’s Modesty forbids: It is sufficient for me, that, under Your Lordship’s known Learning in Antiquity and History, both Antient and Modern, my weak Endeavours at restoring a lost Science may be secure from the Assaults of the Envious or the Ignorant.

I have nothing to fear from the Animosities of Parties, since how inveterate soever they may be against each other, yet they all agree in this one Point, to Esteem and Honour Your Lordship, who are the Atticus of the Times, by Your Virtues endear’d to all sides, and each believing that not to Value Your Lordship, would be to discover such an aversion to Honour and Virtue as the worst of Men would abhor.

Your Virtues, my Lord, are so conspicuous, that they give you that Natural and Rational Right to true Nobility, which the Roman Satyrist so justly exprest:

——Nobilitas sola est atq; unica Virtus.

I will not dispute whether or no there be any Intrinsic Value in a long Descent, or whether that be deriv’d from the necessity of a Subordination essential to Government, or else from the just Reward of Virtue, which ennobles all the Posterity of the Possessors of it, it being here a very useless Disquisition since Your Lordship’s Family is of so very high an Original that none can boast a greater Antiquity, and that Your Lordship is possest of all that Merit which first distinguish’d Man from Man, and gave a Preeminence to the Deserving. Among all the Excellencies which thus dignifie Your Lordship’s Character, perhaps there is none more eminent than Your Protection and Encouragement of Arts and Sciences, to which the English World owe the incomparable Mr. Lock’s Essays on Human Understanding, and other Works extreamly beneficial to the Public. Neither do I in the least question but Your Lordship’s Protection of so excellent and useful an Art as Surgery, will render it as flourishing here in England as it is in any other part of the World. ’Tis true we are not wanting of some extraordinary Professors of that Art, but I could also heartily wish we had not a greater number of Bad, and yet perhaps the chief occasion of this may be the want of a due Method of Encouragement, by which the modest Endeavours of young Proficients are eclips’d, and which (to make a Comparison) like tender Plants, are nipp’d in the Bud and perish for want of Watering.

Now as the want of Opportunity has been in some respect a prejudice to my Business, so also the want of Encouragement has in a great measure been a hindrance to this Work: For what regret of Mind must it needs occasion, to find none esteem’d but such as speak Experience in their Looks, and that Youth should be despis’d tho’ never so hopeful and industrious, meerly because of a particular number of Years, and what an interruption must it be to our painful Studies, to think that even the best Performances of this kind are contemn’d because they are chiefly a Collection, when on the contrary it is receiv’d as an establish’d Maxim, that such as Travel into Foreign Countries, are not only the most capable to describe them, but also whatsoever they relate is look’d upon as the sole matter of Fact and Truth, when many times Business is better transacted by Correspondence, and those that have been at the trouble, expence and danger of Travelling have come home no more improv’d than they went out, except in the Fashions and Levities of the Age, yet are we commonly so imprudent as to value Things meerly for their coming from a far and at a great deal of Expence; but whilst we admire those Novelties, we are often misled and deceiv’d by meer Fables and imaginary Stories of such Things as neither are, nor ever have been.

This I speak not in prejudice to Travelling it self, which, if rightly understood, is certainly the greatest Improvement in the World, and I could heartily wish I had had the opportunity of its Advantage, but on the contrary I do it chiefly to show that it is not impossible to give a tolerable, if not the best Account of the Ancients without it; for what can any one, who now travels into Egypt, learn or see but such a ruin’d Country, that the very Place is hardly known where those wonderful Cities Thebes and Memphis stood, except what is Traditional or extracted from the Writings of the Ancients. ’Tis true, the learn’d and accurate Mr. Greaves has given us the best Description of the Pyramids, but then this was both because they are at this Day in being, and to be view’d by Travellers, as also that he carry’d along with him the best contriv’d Instruments for taking their exact Altitudes and Dimensions, which few besides that see them trouble themselves with, but are content to say, they have seen them; nevertheless Greaves can neither give us the Names of the right Founders of them, nor any certainty whether there were perpetual burning Lamps in them, or a Colossus or Statue on the top of the bigger Pyramid, or, in a word, by whom and to what end the monstrous Figure of the Sphinx was built.

But however the aforesaid Reflections are not the only Discouragements to Industry and Study; to see our Profession over-run by Quacks and Mountebanks, and that Valet de Chambres are suffer’d to Bleed, dress Wounds, cut Fontanells, and perform the like Operations, is what has reduc’d Surgery to so low an ebb. In like manner the noble Art of Embalming has been intirely ruin’d by the Undertakers, as also the Court of Honour much prejudic’d, of which Your Lordship has been twice Supreme Judge; from whence it is the Balsamic Art is now-a-days look’d upon as a very insignificant Thing, and not a little despis’d, whereas the Knowledge and Practise of that Art is both useful in Natural Phylosophy, Physiology, Physic, Surgery and Anatomy, as I hope I have fully prov’d in the body of my Book, over and above that the History thereof leads us into the first and best Antiquities of the World. Your Lordship therefore being both a great Admirer and Encourager of Things of this nature, I hope, thro’ Your generous Protection, not only to secure my self against the contempt of all Critics, but also to be enabl’d to continue and complete my intended Work, and this has also been one Reason why I have thus vindicated Surgery, the Art of Embalming and my own Collection; in which, altho’ I am not thoroughly satisfy’d that there is any thing worthy Your Lordship’s perusal, yet this I am sure of, that Your Candour will appear the greater, by condescending to accept my mean Performance.

And here, my Lord, I have the temptation to loose my self in the Field of Your Praises, but that I know both my Patron and my self too well to indulge the agreeable Contemplation. Were Your Lordship like common Patrons, I should do like common Dedicators, speak of the admirable Temperance of Your Life, Your Moderation, the Wonders of Your Conduct when You were Lord High Admiral, which Office was Administer’d by Your Lordship to the Universal Content and Satisfaction, both of the Merchant, the Officers and Sailers; Your Lordship’s Prudence, Judgment and Sincerity in Your high Post of President of Her Majesties most Honourable Privy Council: And I might extend my Considerations even to the great Happiness such a Person must possess, who is so generally valu’d and esteem’d both by his Queen and Country; but what is so well known I shall leave as wanting not the help of any Panegyric to make it more evident, and content my self with the Honour and Satisfaction of being permitted to Subscribe my self, My Lord,

Your Lordship’s most Humble
And most Obedient Servant,
Thomas Greenhill.

THE
PREFACE.

It is not only the Authority of King Solomon, the greatest, richest and wisest of Men, that convinces us There is nothing new under the Sun, but also common Observation daily shews us the Truth hereof; for whether we respect Kingdoms and Monarchies, Cities or Villages, with their Civil, Military and Rural Transactions; whether we consider the Ambition of Kings and Princes, or the Captivity and Subjection of the Common People; or if we look into the various Sects, Religions, Habits, Customs, Manners, Arts and Sciences that are in the World, we shall in all things find we are but Imitators of our Fore-Fathers, and tread only in their Footsteps.

The same Thing is acted to Day which was done a Thousand Years ago, and this, after a Vicissitude of fantastic Alterations, will in another Century come into Fashion again; so that we move like the Cœlestial Orbs, in the same Circumvolutions, and our whole Life is but

Actum agere, & Penelopes telam retexere.

It is the same with Books and Writings; for tho’ public Advertisements do daily inform us, that some Work or other is continually on the Stocks, yet is it but the same Story inculcated over again, in another Language, different Volume, larger Print, additional Sculptures, and some new Alterations; or else it is but a Translation, with Annotations, Comments, and a Table annex’d, which serve for new Amusements and the Maintenance of the Booksellers. Others which bear a greater Repute in the World, as being penn’d by the more Learned and Ingenious Persons, in a very Concise and Elegant Stile, are generally nothing but some new fine-spun Virtuosi Suggestions, extracted from an almost forgotten and out-of-fashion Hypothesis, and each Improvement in Modern Arts, has undoubtedly ow’d its Original to somewhat hinted to us by the Ancients.

All this I freely acknowledge to be my own Case, with this difference only, that I know my self deficient in that solid Learning and admirable Stile they were wont to use; yet for your encouragement to peruse this Treatise, I can assure you, you shall hardly find any other Book which so generally, particularly and completely handles this Subject: Besides, I can justly aver that I devis’d and compil’d the greatest part thereof before I met with any Author that gave me so much Satisfaction as I have since had; and notwithstanding my Notions were in a great measure agreeable to theirs, tho’ unknown to me, yet will I modestly submit and attribute the Invention thereof to them, First, As being my Seniors, and who Wrote before me, and, Secondly, as infinitely the more Learn’d and better Qualify’d Writers. Nor does this Submission detract the least from my Labour, it having been to me the same thing as a lost Art: And I would gladly be inform’d, by any one at this Day, of the true Method of the antient Egyptian Embalming; nay, would be content only to know the more Modern, tho’ more excellent Way, that of Bilsius.

We must therefore grant that the Ancients knew many Things, which in process of Time, either thro’ Fire, Inundations, hostile Invasions, or other Accidents and Devastations, have intirely perish’d, and still remain so, as Pancirollus fully shews; or if we have any superficial Knowledge of them, as is somewhat apparent from our Modern Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, &c. yet are we even at this present so vastly deficient in the very best of our Imitations, that none have ever hitherto arriv’d to any tolerable Perfection; nevertheless should any one so perfectly apply himself to the Study of one of those lost Arts, as to make a new Discovery therein, I hope you would allow him the same Praise as if he had been the first Inventor; and, for my part, however I should fail in answering your Expectation, of what is seemingly promis’d in the Title-Page; yet, thus far I am pretty sure, that I have given more light into the Matter, than has been done by any of those imperfect Accounts of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, &c. And tho’ some Things that I say may seem to want Authority, yet for the most part, should I have made all the Quotations I could have brought to prove my Assertions, it would have extended this Volume to a much larger size than I intended; wherefore I have in a great measure designedly omitted them, to the end I might avoid Prolixity as much as possible, and in other places I have us’d their Words expresly as my own, not to detract from them, but to be more concise, and have in several places not mention’d their Names, for the aforesaid Reasons: So I do here, once for all, with submission, Apologize for my self, that the censorious World may not repute me an ungrateful Plagiary.

I acknowledge therefore this my Labour, in one respect to be a Collection, in all to be still deficient of that Perfection which so noble an Art deserves; yet in some Things I have improv’d it, and in others apply’d it to those Uses which have scarce before been thought of. But all the Satisfaction I have herein, is to think that I have perform’d my Duty, in exerting my small Talent, with the utmost Care and Diligence, for the Benefit of our Company; and if my Work does not perform what is intended and desir’d, it will nevertheless be Useful, Pleasant, and serve to Divert you, which Horace says is the Perfection and Chief end of all Writing:

Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit Utile Dulci.

A List of such Noblemen and Gentlemen as have been pleas’d to Encourage this Work with Sculptures.

- His Grace Wriothesly Duke of Bedford
- The Honourable James Saunderson, Esq;
- Nathaniel Long, Esq;
- Mr. James Pettiver, Apothecary, F. R. S.
- Charles Bernard, Esq; Serjeant Surgeon
- John Lawson, M. D.
- Hans Sloane, M. D.
- William Gibbons, M. D.
- Mr. Francis Moult, Chymist

- His Grace Thomas Lord Arch-Bishop of Canterbury

- John Thorpe, A. M.
- Mr. Joseph Whiston, Druggist
- Robert Nelson, Esq;
- Mr. George Rolfe, Surgeon

A List of such Noblemen and Gentlemen as have been pleas’d to Encourage this Work by Subscriptions.

A.
Mr. Benjamin Adams
John Allen, Esq;
Mr. Richard Alsop
Mr. Thomas Ashly
William Ashmole, M. D.
Philip Ayres, Esq;
B.
Mr. William Bacon, Surgeon
William Baddiford, M. D.
Nicholas Battersby, Esq;
Mr. Nicholas Batt
Mr. Robert Baylies
Wriothesly Duke of Bedford
Mr. William Bedford
Charles Bernard, Esq; Serj. Surg.
Mr. Henry Bernard, Apothecary
Mrs. Jane Bernard
Dr. William Benson
Joseph Birch, M. B.
Mr. John Blomfield
Mr. James Booth, Surgeon
Mr. John Bound
Mr. John Bornhold

George Bramston, L. L. D. Master of Trinity-Hall in Cambridge.

Samuel Brewster, Esq;
Mr. George Brewster
William Bridge, M. D.
Mr. Samuel Bridge, for 6 Books
Mr. Jeremiah Bright
Mr. Thomas Briscoe
Mr. Barton Bromly
Humphry Brooks, M. D.
John Brown, Esq;
Thomas Brown, M. D.
Mr. Richard Brown
Mr. Albert Bryan
Mr. Richard Bull, Druggist
Richard Butler, Esq;
Mr. John Byard, Surgeon
Mr. Christopher Byland
Mr. Francis Bythel
C.
Thomas Lord Arch-Bishop of Canterbury, for 3.
Mr. Thomas Cawthorpe, Apoth.
Mr. John Chamberlain
Mr. Lawrence de la Chambre
Thomas Chambers, Esq;
Hans Peter Charriere, M. D.
Mr. Thomas Child, for 3.
Mr. Thomas Cholmley
Mr. John Chrichloe
The Right Honourable the Earl of Clarendon
Mr. Joseph Clench, Apothecary
William Cockburn, M. D.
William Cole, M. D.
Mr. William Cole, Surgeon
Mr. George Collinson
Mr. Andrew Cooper, Surgeon
Sir Godfry Copley
Thomas Cotton, Esq;
Mr. William Cowper, Surgeon
Mr. Brian Cozens

Monsieur Le Croix, Surgeon to the Sick and Wounded of Kingsale in Ireland

D.
Sir William Dawes, Bart. D. D.
Mr. Philip Dewert
Mrs. Elizabeth Dillingham
Mr. Francis Douce, Surgeon
Capt. Joseph Drake, Clerk of the Admiralty
James Drake, M. D.
Mr. Charles Draper
Mr. Samuel Dudly
E.
Henry Edmunds, M. A.
The Reverend Charles Elstob, D. D.
Anthony Erby, Esq;
F.
Dr. William Forward
Sir Andrew Fountain
G.
Samuel Garth, M. D. for 4.
Mr. Christopher Gately, Apoth.
Mr. Robert Gay, Surgeon
Mr. Alexander Geekie, Surgeon
William Gibbons, M. D.
The Reverend Edmund Gibson, D. D.
Mr. Charles Gildon
Mr. Francis Glascock
Mr. Thomas Granger
Mr. Edward Green }
Mr. Joseph Green } Surgeons
Mr. John Green   }
William Greenhill, Esq; for 3.
Mr. John Greenhill
Mr. William Grigson
Mr. William Grimes
H.
The Right Honourable the Lord Halifax
Mr. Stephen Hall, Surgeon
The Reverend William Hanbury, M. A.
John Hare, Esq;
Mr. Charles Hargrave
Mr. Charles Harman
Mr. John Harris
John Harrison, Esq;
Mr. John Hartley
Mr. Richard Harvey, Surgeon
Mr. Joshua Hatfield
The Honourable Charles Hatton, Esq;
Mr. Henry Hazzard
George Hepburn, M. D.
Mr. John Hesket
Thomas Hesket, A. M.

Thomas Hewett, M. A. and Fellow of Clare-Hall in Cambridge

The Reverend George Hicks, D. D.
Mr. Bevill Higgons
Mr. Thomas Hill
Mr. John Hill, Apothecary
Mr. George Hinckster, Surgeon
Mr. George Hockenhull
Mr. Thomas Hodgson
Henry Hoghton, Esq;
Philip Horneck, L. L. B.
Mr. Benjamin Howell
Mr. Hungerford Hoskins
J.
Mr. Stephen Jermyn
K.
Mr. William Keith
Mr. John Kersey, Sen.
Capt. John Kerton
Capt. John Key
Mr. Thomas King, Apothecary
L.
Mrs. Catharine Lacy
Mr. Samuel Lane, Apothecary
John Lawson, M. D.
Nathaniel Long, Esq;
Mr. Josias Long
Mr. Mordecai Lyde, Surgeon
M.
Mr. John Mackie, Surgeon
Mr. John Magill, Surgeon
Sir George Markham, Baronet
Mr. Samuel Marwood
Mr. Nathaniel Mezy, Apoth.
Dr. Richard Middleton Massey
Mr. Charles Mathar
Mr. Charles Midgley, Chymist
Mr. John Mills, Surgeon
Dr. More, Lord Bishop of Norwich
Mr. Peter Motteux
Mr. George Moult, Chymist
Mr. Francis Moult, Chymist
Mr. Thomas Murray
N.
Robert Nelson, Esq;

Dr. William Nicholson, Lord Bishop of Carlisle

Denton Nicholas, M. D.
Mr. Vincent St. Nicholas, Surgeon
Mr. Marmaduke Norcliff, Surgeon
Mr. Joseph Nutting, for 2.
O.
Mr. John Oldmixon
P.
Mr. John Padmore, Apothecary
Richard Page, Esq;
Mr. John Partridge, Apothecary
Mr. John Peat
Mr. James Pettiver, Apothecary
Mr. William Philips
The Honourable William Pierpoint, Esq;
Mr. Thomas Pierce, Surgeon
The Reverend Mr. George Plaxton
Mr. William Plaxton
Mr. Jacob Pullen
Mr. Nathan Putt
R.
Mrs. Grace Rackstraugh
John Rathborn, M. D.
Mr. George Richardson, Apoth.
Mr. Jonas Rolse
Mr. George Rolfe, Surgeon
Mr. Abel Roper
S.
Mr. Samuel Sault
Mr. John Salter, Surgeon
Mr. John Salter, Apothecary
Mr. John Savage
Mr. Richard Savery
The Honourable James Saunderson, Esq; for 2.
Mr. Joshua Sharpe
John Shadwell, M. D.
Hans Sloane, M. D.
Mr. William Sloper, Surgeon
The Reverend Thomas Smith, D.D.
Mr. George Smith
Mr. John Smith
Mr. Nathaniel Smith, Surgeon
Mr. Francis Snape
Mr. Joshua Spencer, Chymist
Mr. Thomas Spurway
Samuel Stebbins, Esq;
Mr. Thomas Stollord, Surgeon
Mr. Samuel Storer
Mr. John Sturmy
Mr. John Sturt
T.
Mr. William Talman
Mr. Christopher Talman, Surgeon
Dr. Thomas Tomlinson
The Honourable Coll. Thompson
John Thorpe, M. A.
Edward Tidcomb, Esq;
Mr. Thomas Tucker, Surgeon
Mr. James Tully
W.
Mr. Charles Wadcock, Surgeon
Mr. Lyonel Wafer, Surgeon
Mr. Henry Walker, Surgeon

Robert Walpool, Esq; Councellor of the Admiralty

Mr. Samuel Walton, Chymist
The Reverend Richard Ward, M.A.
Capt. —— Watkins

Abraham Weeks, M. A. of Maudlin College in Oxford

Thomas West, M. D.
Mr. John West
Mr. Joseph Whiston, for 6.
Mr. Ayliff White
Mr. George Wilson, Chymist
Mr. John Wilson, Surgeon
Mr. James Wiltshire
Henry Worsley, Esq;
Mr. John Wyat, for 6.
Y.
Mr. John Yates, Surgeon

Amico admodum colendo D. THOMÆ GREENHILL eximiam suam ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑΝ edenti χαίρειν καὶ εὐπραγεῖν.

Quodcunq; ex Terris volitat medicamen Eois,

Et quas commistas India præbet Opes;

Quotquot Persiacis glomerantur Aromata in Arvis,

Atq; Sabæorum Balsama prompta Solo;
Quascunq; auratas Arabum Campestria Merces,
Pharmaca vel quotquot Turcica Mecca, locant;
Fervidus exustas peragrans Mercator Arenas,
Quæcunq; asportat Magmata odorifera;
Quæq; Palæstinis stillant Opobalsama Plantis,
Et quæ Nilois consita sparsa Jugis;

Thaumata Memphiticis quæcunq; videntur in Antris,

Et quæ Pyramidum claustra stupenda tenent;
Tradidit arcano quodcunq; Volumine Mystes
Ter Magnus, vel quæ dogmata Aristoteles;
Cuncta hæc dignatur nobis Greenhillius ardens
Ecce salutifera suppeditare Manu.
Esse quid hoc dicam, novus hic divinus Apollo
Quod subito Arctois Alpibus exoritur!
Cedite, Romani Medicastri, cedite Graii,
Abdicet atq; Artes [1]Anglica Turba novas.

Nullus adest Squalor, Fætorve, aut dira Mephitis,

Sed redolent succis Atria thuriferis;
Mirifico incisæ stipantur Pulvere Venæ,
Atq; Artus laxos Unguina mista fovent.
Volvas, Mysta sagax, Vita Ceromate functa
Corpora, & intingas Bammate perpetuo:
Præclara socios pergas sanare Medela,
Atq; Orci rabidis Faucibus eripere;
Donec succinea sero sis clausus in Arca,
Dumq; Animus propere tendat ad Astra Viam.

Joan. Kersey, Sen.

1. Undertakers.

Viro Admodùm Erudito Thomæ Greenhill, Chirurgo in ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑΝ, sive Artem Pollincturæ, ab illo editam.

Miramur Phariis nutantia Pondera Saxis,
Et minùs Hospitibus firma Sepulchra suis.
Quod dare debuerant, Ævo Monumenta carerent,
Sæcula ni functis sumeret ipse Lapis.
Arguit elapsam, quâ Mumia duruit, Artem,
Orbatumq; dolet Matre superstes Opus.
At tua Niliaci referent Arcana Laboris
Scripta, nec ignotis jam fluet Amnis Aquis.
Arabiæ Fœlicis Opes, Miracula Memphis,
Isiacos Mores, Justa, Sepulchra, Faces,
Quicquid Arabs novit, Pharii docuere Sophistæ
Indicibus Chartis pandet amica Manus.
Pollinctura tibi reduces debebit Honores,
Arteq; Apollineâ Structa perennis erit.
Corpora quâ nobis servas, tibi nomen in Ævum
Servabis; quâ nos Fama manebit, ope.
Quid dissolvendum restat, Mors irrita? Servat
Corpora Greenhillus salva, Animasq; DEUS.

G. R.

TO HIS
Ingenious Friend Mr. Thomas Greenhill.

’Tis great and worthy of our Praise to lead

The Living thro’ the Dwellings of the Dead;

Death’s grisly Terrours by your Skill to Charm,

And his fell Furies of their Stings disarm:
The Mighty Maker has on you bestow’d
The wond’rous Science for a general Good.
The Labours of your Studies he has crown’d
With Art, alike Important and Profound;

With Death and Time he’s taught you to engage,

And save his best Creation from their Rage.
MAN, the true Image of his heav’nly Form,
Was a rich Prey to the devouring Worm;
Scarce had his Breath it’s Vital Seat forsook

But frozen were his Limbs, and frightful was his Look,

Livid his Lips, his whole Complexion wan,
And Nature loath’d to view the lifeless Man;
A poor Precarious Being he enjoy’d,

And soon the Grave his beauteous Frame destroy’d,

Till you had learn’d by equal Thought and Care

To keep him, as he was created, Fair;

To heal the ghastly Wounds that Death had made,

And give new Beauties which shall never fade:
Heav’n has to you the Sacred Art reveal’d,
Which had for twice ten Ages been conceal’d;
From common Ruine you the Body keep,
And turn the filthiness of Death to Sleep;
Fair as the Slumbers of a Virgin seem,
Who dreams of Joy, and blushes at her Dream,
Youth you preserve, and by your Science save
The living Graces in the rotting Grave.
Sooner the Egyptian King’s aspiring Tomb

May fall, the Marble waste, the Brass consume,

Old Time may sooner run his destin’d Race,
Than the new Wonders of your Art deface:
The Balm and Eastern Odours you employ,
The Noxious Vapours of the Vault destroy;
You reconcile us to the Things we loath,

We feel the Flesh is firm, the Features smooth;

We see, we smell, by e’ry Sense we try

Your Skill, and are no more afraid to Die.

Go on——And may you equal Favour find,

With the vast Service you have done Mankind:

May the vile Quacks, who Heav’ns high Form prophane,

With Practices as infamous as vain.
The base Impostors of the Funeral Trade,
Who cheat at once the Living and the Dead,
Be punish’d and expos’d, and Art restor’d
To her old Honours, and her due Reward:
So late Posterity shall sing your Praise,
And Fame bright Statues to your Glory raise.

J. Oldmixon.

To his Friend the Author.

Fragrant Arabian Gums, employ’d with Art,
From Worms and Dust preserve our meaner Part;
But Labours, such as yours, enliven Fame,
And with due Elogies preserve a Name;
They’ll make the Worthies of the Age to come
Just Homage pay, and venerate your Tomb.

Greenhill, proceed in Learning’s Paths to tread,

And make your self Immortal by the Dead;

Be this your Praise, with equal Skill you strive

To Embalm the Dead, and keep your Friends alive.

B. B.

ERRATA.

Page 24. Line 24. for Jujiæ read Injice, p. 31. l. 9. for Nolanus r. Santorellus, p. 111. l. 31. for on r. in, p. 127. l. 29. for Marenuna r. Maremnia, p. 230. l. 12. for Romans r. Grecians, p. 330. l. 26. for Scardonius r. Scardeonius.

THE

Art of Embalming.

LETTER I.

To Charles Bernard, Esq; Sergeant-Surgeon to Her MAJESTY, Present Master of the Surgeons Company, and one of the Surgeons of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital.

SIR,

Surgery the Chief of Art

If the Excellency of any Art consist only in its Usefulness, or if it derive its Preeminence from the Object, with which it converses, it necessarily must follow, That the Profession of Surgery is the Chief of Arts, since it is employ’d about so noble a Subject as Man; and therefore the Greeks have thought fit to call such manual Operations The Art of Surgery, which otherwise might as well have been apply’d to any Mechanick Trade.

Has two useful Branches;

Thence it is Anatomy and Embalming are also equally to be esteem’d, since they are not only Branches of this Art, but likewise absolutely necessary to be known by its Professors; the one informing us of the constituent Parts of the Body, and the other preserving it for ever in our Memories.

One Taught in our Theatre, and the other to be wish’d there, yet Embalming practis’d only by Undertakers.

The first has been Learnedly Treated of by our own Countrymen, as well as Foreigners, and is admirably perform’d even at this Day in our Anatomical Theatre; whereas the last, I know not by what Fate, is surreptitiously cut off from Surgery, and chiefly practis’d by ignorant Undertakers.

The Author vindicates the Right of it.

For the Honour therefore of our Profession, I have undertaken to vindicate The Art of Embalming, and will prove it to be no less antient and noble than Surgery it self. In order to this, I will first shew both the antient and modern Methods of Embalming, as practis’d by the most learned and expert Physicians, Surgeons and Anatomists, and then proceed to detect the Frauds and Subtilties of the Undertakers or Burial-Men, to the end the World being made sensible of their Abuses, may the easier be reconcil’d to a right Opinion of the legal and skilful Artist; but before I proceed to acquaint you with any farther particulars, I shall content my self to shew you the Authority and Reasonableness of the Use of Embalming, together with the many Advantages that accrue thereby. |Useful in Natural Philosophy and Physiology.| First, I presume, it may not be a little Entertaining, should I relate how far the Knowledge of this Art may be necessary in our very Domestic and Culinary Affairs, such as, Tanning, Painting, Dying, Brewing, Baking, &c. as also in Confectionery, by Conserving all sorts of Roots, Herbs and Fruits, and Preserving Wines and Juices; for this Art being grounded as well on Natural Philosophy as Physiology, it not only teaches us how to Improve our Drinks, but our Aliments likewise, and not only to give a grateful Taste in Cookery, and thereby to whet the Appetite, but also to Preserve fresh Meats, Fish, Fruits, &c. beyond their wonted duration.

Particularly in Anatomy, Surgery, &c.

These Things however I will pass by for the present, that I may come more immediately to my principal Intent, which is to shew how a Body may be so Preserv’d, that by the help of Anatomy we may trace its minute Meanders, and investigate the secret Passages thereof, without being hindred by any offensive Odour or contaminating Cruor.

How Useful to the Naturalist,

By this Art the Naturalist may be enabled to Collect and Preserve a numberless variety of Birds, Beasts, Fishes, Reptiles, Herbs, Shrubs, Trees, with Things monstrous and preternatural; as likewise those which are more rare and not appropriate to his own Climate, and this for compleating his Musæum or Repository with all the Curiosities and Rarities in the Animal and Vegetable World.

To the Physician,

By this Art the Physician learns the situation and use of the Parts of Man’s Body, with the several alterations and changes in the Juices, as well in their healthful as morbid State; and consequently knows how to preserve and confirm them free from all Diseases, as likewise to correct and put a stop to malignant and putrid Fevers, which otherwise must inevitably destroy the sick and weak Patient.

To the Surgeon.

By this Art the Surgeon, in a rightly prepar’d Skeleton, sees the natural Position of the Bones, and proper Motions of each Part, with the true and natural Schemes of the Veins, Arteries, Nerves and other curious Preparations; which not only teach him the difference between the Muscles, the similar, dissimilar, and containing as well as contained Parts of the Body; but likewise how, in performing each Operation, he should skilfully avoid Cutting what he should not, and destroying the Function of that he is to relieve. He is also hereby instructed what Remedies may be found out against Gangrenes, Sphacelus and other Distempers that are judg’d Incurable without being extirpated by Knife or Fire: Who then can sufficiently admire and value this Noble Art of Embalming since it tends to the Conservation both of Life and Limb?

Anatomy deficient without it.

For tho’ Anatomy gives us an Insight into these Things in general, yet is it deficient without the Balsamic Art, in as much as it can neither so particularly nor frequently shew us, what in conjunction with it, may without any offence be Contemplated at any Time, and as often as we please.

How useful in Divinity.

Thus may we entirely conquer and accomplish that Delphian Oracle, Γνῶθι σεαυτὸν, by making most of our Disquisitions into Human Nature by Dissections: And tho’ Brutes may sometimes be useful in Comparative Anatomy, yet Man being the Epitome and Perfection of the Macrocosm, his Body shews a more wonderful Mechanism than all other Creatures can do, as one thus very elegantly expresses in Latin: Hominem (says he) a DEO post reliqua factum fuisse; ut DEUS in ipso exprimeret, sub brevi quodam Compendio, quicquid diffuse ante fecerat.

What accounted by this Age and what by the Antients.

The present Age therefore accounts the chief Use of this Art to be in Anatomical Preparations; but I shall shew another more antient and more general, which is the Preserving a Human Dead Body entire, and which is properly term’d Embalming: More antient, I say, as having been first devis’d and practis’d by the Wise and Learned Egyptians, and more general in that it relates to every particular Person, yet is it by most despis’d and look’d on meerly as an unnecessary expensive Trouble; so that unless I can convince these People to the contrary, I must not expect to find my ensuing Labours meet with any Favour. But before I affirm The Art of Embalming to be a particular part of that Duty, which obliges all Mankind to take care of their Dead, |The Right of Burial and Funeral Ceremonies.| I shall give some cogent Reasons to prove the Right of Burial, what Things are necessary thereto, whether Ceremonies are needless and superstitious, or Monuments vain-glorious, &c. and this shall be as Nature dictates, the Law of GOD appoints, and the Law of Nations directs and obliges.

Sepulture a Debt to Nature.

First, Sepulture is truly and rightly accounted to be Jus Naturæ, by reason the very condition of Human Nature admonishes us, that the spiritless Body should be restor’d to the Earth, from whence it was deriv’d; so that it only pays that Debt of its own accord, which otherwise Nature would require against its Will. Thus, in the beginning of the World, so soon as Adam had transgressed, |Ordain’d by GOD himself.| GOD said to him, Gen. 3. 19. Thou shalt return to the Ground, from whence thou wert taken; for Dust thou art, and unto Dust thou shalt return. Whence Ecclesiastes, 12. 7. says, The Dust shall return to the Earth as it was: and the Spirit to GOD who gave it. Likewise patient Job thus expresses himself, Job 1. 21. Naked came I out of my Mothers Womb (which David also calls the Lowest part of the Earth, Psalm 139. 15.) and naked shall I return thither. Upon which Quenstedt thus Comments, p. 10. De Sepult. vet. He shall not return again into his Mothers Womb, but unto the Earth which is the Mother of all Things. Upon which occasion read also Ecclesiasticus, 40. 1.

Practis’d by the Heathens.

Hence it is the Heathens have generally follow’d the same Custom of restoring the Dead to their Mother Earth; since it is but according to the course of Nature, for all Things to return at last to their first Principles, and that so soon as ever a Disunion or Dissolution of the Parts of Man’s Body shall be caused by Death. That each Thing has ever immediately requir’d what it gave, is excellently describ’d by Euripides, in one of his Tragedies call’d the Supplicants, where he introduces Theseus Talking after this manner:

Ἐάσατ’ ἤδη γῇ καλυφθῆναι νεκρούς.
Ὅθεν δ’ ἕκαστον εἰς τὸ σῶμ’ ἀφίκετο,
Ἐνταῦθ’ ἀπῆλθε, πνεῦμα μὲν πρὸς αἰθέρα,
Τὸ σῶμα δ’ εἰς γῆν· οὔ τι γὰρ κεκτήμεθα
Ἡμέτερον αὐτὸ πλὴν ἐνοικῆσαι βίον·
Κᾄπειτα τὴν θρέψασαν αὐτὸ δεῖ λαβεῖν.

Jam sinite Terræ Mortuos Gremio tegi:

Res unde quæque sumpserat Primordium,

Eo recipitur: Spiritus Cælo redit

Corpusque Terræ: Jure nec enim mancupi:

Sed brevis ad Ævi Tempus utendum datur:

Mox Terra repetit ipsa quod nutriverat.

Suffer the Dead within the Earths cold Womb

To be Interr’d, nor envy them a Tomb;

For all Things, whence they did their Being draw,

Thither, at last, return by Natures Law:

The Soul flies back to Heav’n from whence it came,

Our mouldring Bodies Mother Earth does claim;
Lent us but for a fleeting space to wear,
And then they to their first Abodes repair.

Asserted in the Scripture.

Hereby it plainly appears that we really possess nothing of our own, and what we seem to enjoy, is but only lent us for a season, and must be restor’d again when ever we die, which is agreeable to that Expression of Job, in the latter part of the above-mentioned Verse and Chapter. The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be the Name of the Lord. Also Holy David, Psalm 146. 4. (speaking of Man’s Frailty and Mortality) says, His Breath goes forth, he returns to his Earth. Here he emphatically calls it his Earth, both because he was made of it, Gen. 2. 27. and must return to it again, Gen. 3. 19. and by reason he has a Right to a Burial-Place in it.

Confirm’d by the Philosophers and Poets.

The same is likewise Taught us by Cicero, where he says, Reddenda Terra Terræ: That the Earth (meaning Man’s Body) must be restor’d to its Earth; which also gave occasion to the antient Philosophers to contemplate the Beginning and End, or the Life and Death of Man, that thereby they might be the better able to Teach us what we really are in Nature, and how little we have to Boast of: The very Thought of which put an old Poet into a Passion and Admiration, expressing himself thus in gingling Monkish Verses:

Cum Fæx, cum Limus, cum Res vilissima simus,

Unde superbimus, ad Terram Terra redimus.

Man who is made of Earth, Can he be vain

And know he must return to Earth again?

Methinks the very Consideration of this should cause us to lay aside all Pride and Vanity, and serve for a perpetual Memorial of Humility and Obedience to our Creator, who as he was pleas’d to endue us with Rational Souls, and to give us Dominion over all Things here below, yet, that we might not be thereby puffed up and tempted to forget him, he wisely formed us of the Dust, and, in his good Time, will reduce us to Dust again. Thence Divine Plato assures us, that the End and Scope of his Philosophy was only The Consideration of Death.

Its Rise and Antiquity.

In Obedience therefore to the Laws both of GOD and Nature, Sepulture undoubtedly was at first Instituted, and if either Antiquity or universal Custom can prove a convincing Argument, you may account it as antient as the World it self, and us’d by all Nations tho’ perhaps in different manners; for you must allow, so soon as Death came in by Man’s Transgression, it necessarily follow’d that some care must have been taken to Bury his Carcass. The first Instance of this that we read of, in the Sacred History of the old Testament, is how Abraham, the Father of the Faithful, Buried his Wife Sarah in the Cave of the Field Machpelah, which he had bought of the Sons of Heth for a Burying-Place for his Family, Gen. 23. 19, 20. There also St. Jerome asserts Adam the first Man was Buried; and Nicolaus Lyranus and Alphonsus Tostatus are of Opinion the Four Patriarchs were Buried there likewise with their Wives, Eve, Sarah, Rebecca and Lea, all which you may find explain’d more at large in Quenstedt, p. 2, 3, 4.

First Cause of it.

Now this seems to have been one of the first Causes of Interment, to wit, that it being the course of Nature, for Bodies depriv’d of Spirit or Life to corrupt or stink; and the Medicinal Art being little known and less us’d in those early Days (without the Knowledge of which it was impossible to preserve them) there remained no other way of securing the Living from the pestiferous Exhalations of the Dead, than by burying their Carcasses in the Earth, and so removing such miserable Objects out of their sight; which seems clearly intimated by the aforesaid Example of Abraham, when, being in much trouble for the Loss and Death of Sarah his Delight, he spake thus unto the Sons of Heth, Gen. 23. 4. Give me a Possession of a Burial-Place with you, that I may Bury my Dead out of my Sight. (LXX. θάψω τὸν νεκρόν μου, ἀπ’ ἐμοῦ) where it is to be observ’d, that he no longer calls her his Wife, but his Dead; as knowing that those alterations, which she must in a few Days inevitably undergo, would have deterr’d him from the very Thoughts of her, if he had not earnestly sought for and obtain’d a Burying-Place, where he might hide her out of his Sight.

Second Cause.

This is to be look’d upon as the second Cause or End of Burial, to wit, that it being not only disagreeable to the dignity of our Nature, but also occasioning great sadness of Mind, for the Living to see what dismal Accidents and Calamities befall the Dead, that we should free our selves from the Apprehensions and black Idea’s such Objects are naturally apt to inspire, by removing them out of our Sight and Mind, by a timely Sepulture: For as Demosthenes said in a Funeral Oration, Leniatur ita Luctus Eorum, qui Suis sunt Orbati; By this means the Grief of those, who are depriv’d of their Friends, is alleviated. |Thought more Beneficial to the Living than the Dead.| So that these two Reasons seeming to conduce more to the Benefit of the Living than the Dead, it has given occasion to some to believe, that Burial was from thence invented, and of this Opinion was Grotius, who thus writes: Hinc est, quod Officium Sepeliendi, non tam Homini, id est, Personæ, quam Humanitati, id est, Naturæ Humanæ, præstari dicitur; For this Reason it is that the Office of Burial is said not to be paid so much to the Man, viz. To the particular Person, as to Humanity it self, that is, to Human Nature in general. And St. Austin, Lib. 1. De Civit. DEI, cap. 12. and Lib. De Cura pro Mortuis, cap. 2. affirms, Curationem Funeris, Conditionem Sepulturæ, Pompas Exequiarum, magis esse Vivorum Solatia, quam Mortuorum Subsidia; that The regulating and management of the Funeral, the manner of Burial, the Magnificence and Pomp of the Exequies, were devised rather as a Consolation to the Living than any Relief to the Dead. But Seneca, Lib. 1. De Remed. hath more plainly confirm’d both the foregoing Reasons, saying, Non Defunctorum Causa, sed Vivorum inventa est Sepultura, ut Corpora & Visu & Odore fœda submoverentur; Burial was found out not so much for the sake of the Dead as the Living, that by means thereof Bodies noisom both to Sight and Smell might be remov’d: Therefore Andrew Rivet, in his 19th Exercise, on the 23 Chap. of Genesis, commends Sepulture as a laudable Custom, pertaining to common Policy and Honesty. Human Nature would be asham’d to see Man, the Master-Piece of the Creation, left unregarded or lye unburied and naked, expos’d to the Insults of all Creatures, and become a Herritage to the most vile Worms and Serpents, or lye Rotting like Dung upon the face of the Earth; so that if Pity and Compassion will not move our obdurate Hearts to Bury him, the very Stench and Corruption of the Dead will compel us to it. Hence Chytræus:

Corpus inane Animæ, tandem Fætore maligno,

A se abigit Cunctos——

A breathless Body, tho’ our Pity fails

To make us Bury it, its Stench prevails.

By these two fore-going Causes of Burial appears yet a farther Benefit to Mankind, that they may live without that continual Terror of Death, |Frees from the Terror of Death.| which is occasion’d by seeing such miserable Emblems of Mortality. If you do but consider, when Men at first liv’d dispers’d, the very Abhorrence and Detestation of meeting Dead Bodies, made them to remove such unpleasant Objects out of their sight: Afterwards, when they assembl’d together and built Cities to dwell in, they used Burial for this Reason says Lilius Gyraldus, Lib. De var. Sepult. Ritu. pag. 4. That the Living might not be infected by the most noisom stench of the Dead. The before-going Arguments for Interment have been deduc’d from Natural and Political Reasons, but the latter likewise relating to Physic, and particularly conducing to the Health and long Life of Man (since The Art of Embalming was not known in those Days) we will a little more accurately enquire into the pernicious Effects of Putrefaction, and the fatal Consequences that from thence ensue; for this being the most potent Enemy to Life, |From Putrefaction the Enemy of Life.| Nature is very careful to expel it so soon as ever she perceives, by its odious Scents, its invisible Approaches: Nor can she endure the lesser ill Scents of Sweat or Urine, or those Excrements of the Belly, which are necessarily produc’d from the Aliments of the Body, but the Body it self as well as Spirits reject them; for this is to be observ’d, that the Excrements and Putrefactions of all Creatures smell worst and are most offensive to their own Species, which we may see by Cats, which voiding a more than ordinary fetid Dung, always take care to bury it. And such cleanliness of Living renders all Creatures the more Healthful, as we daily find by Birds, Pigeons, Horses, Dogs, &c. which thrive best when their Houses, Stables and Kennels are kept sweetest. There is not only an unhealthy, but oftentimes a secret poysoning Quality in the fetid Odours of a putrid Air, which are made so malignant by Bodies corrupt and exposed therein; and thus, in several Countries, |From the Plague.| great Plagues have been occasion’d only by the Putrefaction of prodigious swarms of dead Grasshoppers and Locusts cast up on heaps. Thus, the Scripture testifies, the Land of Egypt was corrupted with Lice, Flies, Frogs and Locusts as a Punishment to Pharaoh: The Fish of the Rivers died, and the Waters stank; also there was a Murrain among the Beasts, and a Plague of Boils and Blains among the Inhabitants, Exod. chap. 7, 8, 9, 10.

The infectious Atoms of a putrid Air are so very subtile and invisible, that they meet with an easie reception into the Brain and Lungs, as often as we breath, and thereby immediately occasion in the Brain either an Apoplexy or Delirium, a Syncope to the Spirits, a general Convulsion of the Nerves, or else more slowly corrupt the Blood, by mixing with it in its passage thro’ the Lungs, where they either produce Imposthumes, Ulcers, Consumptions or Hectic-Fevers which prey upon the Spirits and Vitals, or bring Gangrenes to the extreamest Parts, or the Small-Pox, Purple Fevers, and other malignant Distempers to the whole Body; nay, they too frequently prove the very principal Ingredient of the Plague it self, that inexorable Spirit which so swiftly dispatches many thousands of Souls to the other World.

The Art of Poisoning the Air.

Thus Poison’d Air, or The Art of Empoisoning by Odours, is more dangerous than Poison’d Water, forasmuch as it is impossible Man should live without Breathing, or subsist in an infectious Air, without a proper Antidote. This Art has been effectually practis’d by the Indians in their Trafficks, and the Turks in their Wars, and was particularly us’d by Emanuel Comnenus towards the Christians, when they pass’d thro’ his Country, in their way to the Holy-Land. This the Lord Bacon relates in the 10th Century of his Natural History, p. 201. where he is of Opinion, That foul Smells, rais’d by Art for Poisoning the Air, consist chiefly of Man’s Flesh or Sweat putrefied, since those Stinks, which the Nostrils immediately abhor and expel, are not the most pernicious, but such as have some similitude with Man’s Body, which thereby the easier insinuate themselves and betray the Spirits. Thus in Agues, Spirits coming from Putrefaction of Humours bred within the Body, extinguish and suffocate the Natural Heat, p. 74. The same effect is likewise to be observ’d in Pestilences, in that the malignity of the infecting Vapour, daunts the principal Spirits, and makes them to fly and leave their Regiment, whereby the Humours, Flesh and Secundary Spirits dissolve and break as it were in an Anarchy, Exper. 333. p. 74.

Also because the Canibals, in the West-Indies, eat Man’s Flesh, the same Author thought it not improbable, but that the Lues Venerea might owe its Origin to that foul and high Nourishment, since those People were found full of the Pox at their first Discovery, and at this Day the most Mortal Poisons, practis’d by them, |Consists partly of Man’s Flesh, &c.| have a mixture of Man’s Flesh, Fat or Blood. Likewise the Ointments that Witches have us’d, are reported to have been made of the Fat of Children dug out of their Graves; and diverse Sorceresses, as well among the Heathens as Christians, have fed upon Man’s Flesh, to help, as they thought, their wicked Imaginations with high and foul Vapours, Exper. 26. and 859.

The most pernicious Infection, next the Plague or Air Poison’d by Art, is the Smell of a Goal where Prisoners have been long, close and nastily kept, whereof, says the Lord Bacon, we have in our Time had Experience twice or thrice, when both the Judges that sat on the Trials, and numbers of those that assisted, sickn’d on the spot and Died, Exper. 914. The like would frequently befall those that visit Hospitals, and other such Places, where either the Leprosie, French Pox or Malignant Fevers rage, were not the Attendants dayly accustom’d to it, or did they not use proper Antidotes to keep them from it. If therefore the morbid State of the Living only be so pernicious to healthful Bodies, |Air most Infected by a putrid Carcass.| what Destruction must that Air produce, which is replete with the volatile Steams and Spirits, that issue from a dead and putrid Carcass?

——Sicut Grex totus in Agris

Unius Scabie cadit & Porrigine Porci,

Uvaq; conspecta Livorem ducit ab Uva.   says Juvenal.

From one infected Hog, Experience shows, }

Thro’ the whole Herd the dire Contagion goes; }

Thus from one tainted Grape the Bunch corrupted grows. }

For every Thing in Nature easiest Corrupts that of its own kind. The Reason of this is because it is Homogeneal, as is commonly seen in Church-Yards, where they bury much; for a Corps will consume in a far shorter Time there, than it would have done in another place where few have been buried.

It therefore necessarily follows, that if the Dead were not inhum’d, whole Cities would Corrupt and be fill’d with the Plague; and after great Battels, if the Dead should lie unbury’d, whole Countries would be destroy’d; |Sepulture defends from the Plague,| all which Mischiefs are prevented by a timely Sepulture: For the Earth by its weight and closeness not only suppresses and dissipates the Vapours that arise from a putrid Carcass, but also imbibes and sucks up the stinking Gore; and being a Medium between that and the Sun, prevents the Beams of that Planet from suddenly exhaling such fetid Odours. |Likewise preserves Bodies.| Nay the Lord Bacon farther assures us, That Burying in the Earth, which is cold and dry, serves for Preservation, Condensation and Induration of Bodies, as you may find in his 4th Century of his Natural History, Exper. 376, 377. But this needs no farther Confirmation, since Bodies are dug up in every Age perfect and uncorrupt, which perhaps had been buried above 40 or 50 Years, and some have been found petrified to a perfect Stone, of which we shall discourse more hereafter, therefore will at present proceed to acquaint you with other final Causes or Ends of Burial.

Third Cause of Burial.

A Third Cause of Burial is, That Man’s Body may not be torn to pieces and devour’d by savage Beasts, and Birds of Prey, which would be a sight wholly unbecoming the Dignity of Human Nature, as Seneca observes Lib. 6. De Beneficiis: Inter maxima Rerum suarum, says he, nihil habet Natura, quo magis glorietur. Nature has nothing in the whole Creation of which she may boast more than of Man: So that it must needs be a grievous Trouble and Concern to her to see the Master-Piece and Perfection of all Creatures become thus a Prey to the vilest of Animals; and that he who whilst living had all of them under Subjection, so soon as ever his Spirit is separated from his Body, they should forget all Allegiance to their late Sovereign, and rebelliously Tear him to Pieces: Therefore we who are his Fellow-Creatures, and endu’d with Humanity, take care to bury him out of the way of such Harpies; and ought to perform all his Funeral Obsequies with the same Respect we were wont to show him whilst alive. Hence Hugo Grotius is of Opinion, That Burial was invented in respect to the Excellency of Man’s Body. |Taken from the Excellency of Man’s Body.| Cum Homo cæteris Animalibus præstet, indignum visum, si ejus Corpore alia Animantia pascerentur, quare inventam Sepulturam, ut id quantum posset, caveretur. Since Man excells all other Creatures, it was thought unworthy they should feed upon his Body; for which reason Sepulture was found out, that this Mischief might be prevented as far as possible. Likewise Lactantius, Lib. 6. Institut. cap. 12. says, Non patiemur Figuram & Figmentum DEI, Feris & Volucribus in Prædam jacere, sed reddamus id Terræ, unde ortum est. Let us not suffer the Image and Workmanship of GOD to lie expos’d as a Prey to the Beasts and Birds, but let us return it back to the Earth from whence it had its Origin.

Accounted by us the Fourth Cause.

So that we will account the Fourth Reason for Burial, to be the Excellency of Man’s Body, to which we ought to show the greater Honour and Respect, in that it is the Receptacle of the Immortal Soul. Hence Origen, Lib. 8. Contra Celsum says, Rationalem Animam honorare didicimus, & hujus Organa Sepulchro honorifice demandare. We have learn’d to Honour the Rational Soul, and respectfully to convey its Organs to the Grave. And thus St. Austin very elegantly expresses himself, Lib. 1. De Civit. DEI, cap. 13. Si Paterna Vestis & Annulus, vel si quid hujusmodi, tanto carius Posteris, quanto erga Parentes Affectus major, nullo modo ipsa spernenda sunt Corpora, quæ utiq; multo familiarius, atq; conjunctius, quam quælibet Indumenta gestamus. If we take so much the more care to preserve our Fathers Apparel, Ring, and other Remainders of the like nature, as we bore an Affection to them, ’tis plain their Bodies are by no means to be neglected, which we wear closer and nearer to us than any Cloaths whatever.

Fifth Cause of Burial.

But the Fifth Cause and ultimate End of Burial is in order to a future Resurrection, and as B. Gerhard asserts, agreeable to that Companion of Christ and St. Paul his Apostle, John 12. 24. 1 Corinth. 15. 37, 38. That Bodies are piously to be laid up in the Earth, like to Corn sowed, to confirm the assured Hope of the Resurrection: And therefore the place of Burial was call’d by St. Paul, Seminatio, as others term it Templi Hortus, the Churches Orchard or Garden. By the Greeks it was call’d, Κοιμητήριον, Dormitorium, a Sleeping Place. By the Hebrews, בית חיים, Beth-chajim, i. e. Domus Viventium, the House of the Living, in the same respect as the Germans call Church-Yards, Gotsacker, i. e. DEI Ager, aut Fundus, GOD’s Field, in which the Bodies of the Pious are sowed like to Grain or Corn, in expectation of a future Harvest. By these Appellations we are admonish’d of the Resurrection of the Body, and of the Immortality which is given by GOD to the Soul. For as they that Sleep awake again, and as Christ who is the Head arose again, so shall we who are his Members arise. Hence Calvin (Commenting on Isaiah 14. 18.) says, The Carcasses of Beasts are thrown out, because they were Born to Putrefaction; but our Bodies are interr’d in the Earth, and being there deposited, expect the last Day, that they may arise from thence to lead a Blessed and Immortal Life with the Soul. Also Aurelius Prudentius, a Christian Poet, rightly asserts The Hope of the Resurrection to be the chief Cause why the greatest Care is taken of Burial, whereof he has most excellently describ’d every particular Circumstance in a Latin Funeral Hymn, which being Translated by Sir John Beaumont, Baronet, into 172 Verses, I will for brevity sake refer you to Weaver’s Funeral Monuments, pag. 25. where you will find them inserted, and worth your Perusal.

Want of Burial not prejudicial to the Soul.

Nevertheless, we are not to think, tho’ Burial was ordain’d by GOD as a Work both pleasing and acceptable to him, and consequently approv’d and practis’d by all Men, that therefore the want of it, or any particular Ceremony thereof, can any ways be prejudicial to a Christian Soul, as St. Austin and Ludovicus Vives his Commentator alledges, Lib. 1. De Civit. DEI, cap. 11. And that Complaint which the Royal Prophet makes, Psalm 79. 3. That there was none to bury the dead Bodies of GOD’s Servants, was spoken rather to intimate their Villany that neglected it, than any Misery to them that underwent it. ’Tis true such Actions may appear heinous and tyranous in the Eye of Man, but precious in the Sight of the Lord is the Death of his Saints: Neither is our Faith in his assured Promise so frail, as to think ravenous Beasts or Birds of Prey can any ways make the Body want any part at the Resurrection; but, on the contrary, we are well satisfied that in a Moment there shall be given such a new Restitution, not only out of the Earth, but out of the most minute Particles of all the other Elements, wherein any Bodies can possibly be included, that not a Hair of our Heads shall be missing. We read how the Bodies of the Christians (after great Battels, and the Sacking and Subverting of Towns and Cities) stood in want of the Rights and Ceremonies of Burial, which neither is to be accounted any Omission in the living Christians, who could not perform them, nor any Hurt to the Dead, who could not feel them. We may, moreover, find in the History of Martyrs, and such like Persecutions, how barbarous and cruel Tyrants have raged over the Bodies of Christians, who, not content with tormenting them to Death several thousands of ways, still persever’d with inhumanity to insult over their mangled Corps, and at length to shew their utmost Contempt, bury’d them in the Bowels of rapacious Creatures, or what other ignominious ways their wickedness could invent. Nevertheless, we have all the reason to believe their Souls were receiv’d into Heaven, and that their Bodies will at the last Day be reunited intire to them again; after which, Death will have no more Power over their Bodies than their Souls, but as St. Paul says, 1 Cor. 15. 44. They will become Spiritual Bodies. |Nor any kind thereof hurtful.| So that in this respect it matters not after what manner the Body be destroy’d, dissolv’d or bury’d, as Tatian in his Book Contra Gentes says, Quamvis Caro tota Incendio absumatur tamen Materiam evaporatam Mundus excipit, quanquam aut in Fluviis, aut in Mari contabescam, aut Feriis dilanior, condor tamen in Penu locupletis Domini. Altho’ the Flesh be wholly consum’d by Fire, yet the World receives the evaporated Matter, nay, altho’ I am wash’d to nothing in Rivers or Seas, or am devour’d by wild Beasts, yet shall I be reposited in the Store-House of a most wealthy Lord. Likewise Minutius Fælix in Octavio has these Words: Corpus omne sive arescit in Pulverem, sive in Humorem solvitur, vel in Cinerem comprimitur, vel in Nidorem tenuatur, subducitur Bonis, sed DEO Elementorum custodio reservatur. The Body whether it be dry’d into Powder, resolv’d into Moisture, reduc’d to Ashes, or evaporated into Air, is indeed taken away from Good Men, but still the custody of the Elements is reserv’d to GOD. Some have been accounted a rigid sort of Stoicks, and void of all Humanity, for this Reason only, because they averr’d it profited nothing, whether the Body corrupted above or beneath the Earth. Thus Lucan, Lib. 7.

————Tabesne Cadavera solvat

An Rogus haud refert: Placido Natura receptat

Cuncta Sinu, Finemq; sui sibi Corpora debent.

——Cælo tegitur qui non habet Urnam.

——————For ’tis all one
Whether the Fire or Putrefaction
Dissolve ’em; all to Natures Bosom go,

Since to themselves their Ends the Bodies owe.

The Skie shall cover him who wants a Grave.

And that Favorite-Courtier Mecænas was wont to say:

Non Tumulum curo, sepelit Natura Relictos.

I value not a Tomb, Nature provides that for me.

But this these spoke only in respect to the Soul, which could receive no Hurt nor Damage from the Bodies being cast out unbury’d; therefore they seemingly ridicul’d and despis’d it, the better to fortifie Men against any fear of the want of Burial, yet they firmly believ’d that all those who were depriv’d thereof, were the most miserable and wretched of Creatures, and that their Souls continually wander’d, as Virgil elegantly expresses, Æneid. 6. v. 325. where Æneas asking the Cybil why such a number of Souls stood crowding near the Stygian Lake, and were refus’d a Passage, he receiv’d this Answer:

Hæc Omnis, quam cernis, inops inhumataq; Turba est:

Portitor ille, Charon: Hi, quos vehit unda, Sepulti.

Nec Ripa datur horrendas, nec rauca Fluenta |Some have fear’d the want of it.|

Transportare prius, quam Sedibus ossa quierunt.

Centum errant Annos volitantq; hæc Littora circum,

Tum demum admissi Stagna exoptata revisunt.

Constitit Anchisa Satus, & Vestigia pressit,

Multa putans, Sortemq; Animo miseratus iniquam

Cernit ibi mæstos, & Mortis Honore carentes, &c.

These Ghosts rejected, are the unhappy Crew

Depriv’d of Sepulchers and Funeral due.

The Boat-Man, Charon; those the buried Host,

He Ferries over to the farther Coast.

Nor dares his Transport Vessel cross the Waves

With such whose Bones are not compos’d in Graves.

A Hundred Years they wander on the Shore,

At length, their Pennance done, are wafted o’er.

The Trojan Chief his forward Pace repress’d,

Revolving Anxious Thoughts within his Breast;

He saw his Friends, who whelm’d beneath the Waves,

Their Funeral Honours claim’d, and ask’d their quiet Graves.

Dryden.

Some again are induc’d perhaps to think the care of Burial needless, because there is no Sense in a Dead Body, as the Proverb has it, Mortui non dolent; and others reject it for this Reason, Quia sentienti Onus est Terra, nihil sentienti, supervacaneum. For the Earth’s a Burthen to him that is sensible of it, but none to him that is not.

Others have Despis’d it.

Diogenes the Cynic Philosopher, among the rest of his Whimsies, despis’d Sepulture, and when he was told he must thereby become a Prey to the Beasts and Birds, he gave them this jocose Advice, Si id metues, ponite juxta me Bacillum, quo abigam eos. If you fear that, place my Staff by me that I may drive them away. Quid poteris nihil sentiens? What can you do if you are sensible of nothing? Reply’d his Friend. To which he answer’d, Quid igitur Ferarum laniatus oberit nihil sentienti? If I am not sensible, how can their Teeth affect me? At other times he was wont to say on the like Occasion, Si Canes meum lacerabunt Cadaver, Hyrcanorum nactus fuero Sepulturam, Si Vultures, Iberiorum; quod si nullum Animal accederet, ipsum Tempus: Pulcherimam fore Sepulturam, Corpore pretiosissimis Rebus, Sole, inquam & Imbribus absumpto. If the Dogs eat my Carcass, I shall have the Sepulture of the Hyrcanians, if Vultures, of the Iberians; but if no Animal come near me, then shall I be consum’d by Time, and, What a fine sort of Burial must that needs be, to have my Body reduc’d to Dust by two of the most precious Things in Nature, the Sun and Showers? Likewise Demonactes being told, if he were flung out unbury’d, as he desir’d, the Dogs would tear him to pieces, he wittily answer’d, Quid incommodi, si mortuus alicui sim usui? What hurt can it do me, if after I am Dead I do somebody Good?

In what Sense the Philosophers slighted it.

It may farther be ask’d, Why Plato, Aristotle, and other Philosophers, famous for Learning and Piety, despis’d the Rites and Ceremonies of Sepulture? To which I answer, They did not really Despise them, nor durst they say they were not to be at all: They said only, if by chance they were neglected, it could do no hurt. Nor lastly did Lucretius contemn Sepulture, he only laughed at those who procur’d it for this Reason, because they thought there still remain’d a Sense in the Dead, as you will perceive by these Lines of his, Lib. 3.

Proin’ cum videas, Hominem indignarier ipsum,

Post Mortem fore, ut aut putrescat Corpore posto;

Aut Flammis interfiat, Malisve Ferarum, &c.

Now when you hear a Man complain and moan,

And mourn his Fate, because when Life is gone

His Limbs must waste, or rot i’th’ Earth, or feast

The greedy Flames, or some devouring Beast;
All is not well; He, by strong Fancy led,
Imagines Sense remains amongst the Dead;
Nor can I think, tho’ He Himself denies,
And openly declares the whole Man Dies;

But that from strong Conceits he still believes,

Fond Fool, that He Himself, Himself survives:

For now e’en whilst He breaths, e’en whilst He lives,

And thinks He must be Torn or Burnt, He grieves;

Thinks still the Carcass must be He, and thence

His wanton Fears infer there must be Sense.

And hence He grieves that He was Born to Die,

Subject to treacherous Mortality:

But never thinks, fond Fool, that when kind Death

Shall close His Eyes in Night, and stop His Breath;

Then nothing of this thinking Thing remains

To mourn His Fate, and feel sharp Grief and Pains.

Creech.

Hereby ’tis plain Lucretius only blames and chides those who are of a doubtful and wavering Mind, and that openly confess there can be no future Sense remaining after Death, yet privately hope within themselves that some Parts will remain, and therefore mightily dread the want of Burial, nay, violently abhor being a Prey to wild Beasts and Birds. This I take to be a natural hint of the Resurrection of the Body and Immortality of the Soul, tho’ outwardly these Pagans disown’d both:

Eripe me his invicte Malis; aut tu mihi Terram

Injice, sic saltem placidis in Morte quiescam

Sedibus, &c. as Palinurus’s Ghost said to Æneas, Æne. 6.

From lasting Miseries my wandring Soul relieve,

That she in pleasant Shades and perfect Rest may live.

We cannot believe there were ever any Philosophers in the World, of such obdurate Hearts, as strictly to deny Burial, tho’ out of a seeming Arrogance they despis’d it; but that they only pretended so lest their Antagonists should think the want of Burial an inflicted Punishment, therefore they were the easier mov’d, as much as in them lay, to expose them. |Why the Frenchdeny’d it.| Thus Pausanias in Phocic. gives an Instance of some French who deny’d Burial to the slain in Battel, alledging it was a Ceremony nothing to be esteem’d of; but the true Reason they did it was, That they might bring the greater Terror on their Enemies, and make them to have the worse Opinion of their Cruelty. It must be granted, the Dead have no sense of any Change or Dissolution they undergo, and that it is a ridiculous Opinion of Tyrants, to think to punish the Body by mangling it, and delivering it to be torn to pieces and devour’d; neither do Bodies suffer any Hurt or Damage in respect to the Soul, after what manner soever they are bury’d: Yet you must grant these sufficient Reasons why the Dead should be taken care of, and not be despis’d and cast away; for as we esteem the Body the Temple of GOD, and Receptacle of the Soul, so ought we honourably to Interr it with those Funeral Obsequies as are becoming its Quality and Dignity.

Right of Burial grounded on the Law of GOD and Nature.

Now we must look upon Burial to be a Work enjoin’d both by the Law of Nature and Nations, and not only by the Human but by the Divine Law; for the most Barbarous as well as Civiliz’d People of the World have ever paid some Respect and Observance to their Dead, tho’ perhaps after different Manners, by Burying them in the Water, Earth, Air, Fire, &c. The common Dictates of Nature have taught them to abhor such dismal Objects and offensive Smells as dead Bodies must necessarily present, and their Religion has shown them the Inhumanity and Cruelty of neglecting their Duty to them: Nay, if we look into the Natural History of Animals, we shall find some of them excelling Man in this particular, by taking a more than ordinary Care of their Dead, as is to be seen not only in Cranes, Elephants and Dolphins, &c. As Ælian de Animalibus, Lib. 2. cap. 1. and Lib. 12. cap. 6. and Franzius in his History of Animals, cap. 4. Peter Faber in his Semestrium, Pliny and others observe, but likewise in Ants, Bees and other Insects; for as Grotius in his Treatise, De Jure Belli & Pacis, Lib. 11. cap. 19. rightly observes, |Observ’d by Brutes, &c. as well as Men.| Nullum est in Homine Factum laudabile, quin non Vestigium, in alio aliquo Animantium Genere DEUS posuerit. There is nothing done by Man worthy of Commendation, but GOD has imprinted some Imitation of it even in Brutes.

A Corps lying unbury’d and Putrifying, is not only a dismal Aspect to our Eyes, offensive to our Nose, and ungrateful to all our External Senses, but even horrid in our very private Apprehensions and secret Conceptions; nay to hear it but only nam’d, is so very unnatural and unpleasant to us, that we care not to entertain the least Thought of Death, even to the deferr’d Time of our Expiration. What presence of Mind can enable a Fellow-Creature to behold such a miserable Object as this, express’d by its dismal Aspect, deform’d Proportion, fœtid Smell, putrid Carcass, and the like, and this perhaps of one who was but just now your Bosom-Friend or the World’s Favorite, a Prince worthy of Immortality for his Wisdom, Piety, Valour, Conduct, &c. and justly admir’d for the Beauty of his Person, Gracefulness of his Mien, and Conformity of all the External Parts of his Body, as well as Internal Qualifications of his Mind? Certainly common Humanity and Self-Preservation would alone persuade us to Inter him out of our Sight, or else preserve him from a State of Corruption and Deformity by Embalming.

By both to prevent infection, &c.

I have before observ’d how Beasts receiv’d the Infection of the Murrain from a Putrefaction of their own Bodies; now I will shew you how they likewise, by Natural Instinct, avoid each other in such like Calamities: The Sound shun the Company of the Infected, and they reciprocally separate from the rest to Mourn by themselves. A wounded Bird leaves the Flight: A Stag (when Shot) forsakes the Herd and flies to the Desarts: And every Diseas’d Creature retires into some solitary Place, where its last Care seems to be, that of providing for its Burial. |Every Creature takes care of its own Burial.| Reptiles creep into Holes, and Birds into their Nests, or the Bottoms of thick Hedges: Rabbets die in their Burrows: Foxes, Badgers and Wolves, &c. in their Dens, after which nothing will Inhabit there. So that they seem to know they shall lie undisturb’d in those Dormitories, which they took care in their Lives Time to provide and dig in order to their Interment; like as some Hermits, who, during their Lives, made their Cave their Habitation, but when Dead their Tomb.

The larger sort of Domestic and Tame Creatures seem likewise to endeavour this, as much as they can, as may be observ’d from Horses, Oxen, Sheep, &c. who when they decline and draw near their Deaths, seek either the thickest part of a Wood, a Dell or Gravel-Pit in a Common, or deep Ditch in a Field, where they may lay themselves down, as in a Grave, and die: They seem to desire nothing more of their Master, whom they have all their Lives faithfully serv’d, than to cover their Bodies with the Earth.

The lesser Tame Animals, as Dogs, Cats, &c. know they have no occasion to take that Care of themselves, for when they die, their Master is oblig’d to remove them out of his House and bury them: |How Insects bury themselves.| But as for Insects, they (fearing Mankind should be regardless of their inconsiderable Bodies, and not be so grateful as to take care of their Funerals, tho’ they had consum’d their Lives in making Food and Raiment for their Master) seem with a more extraordinary Contrivance, and admirable Art, to provide for their own Burial. The little Bee works its Honey-Comb for the Benefit of Man while it lives, and for its own Sepulture when it dies; the Comb serving for its Tomb, and the Wax and remaining Honey for its Embalment, conformable to that Saying of Martial, in his Fourth Book and Thirty Second Epigram:

Et latet, & lucet Phaetontide condita Gutta,

Ut videatur Apis Nectare clausa suo:

Dignum tantorum Pretium tulit illa Laborum,

Credibile est ipsam sic voluisse mori.

She lurks, she shines within her balmy Nest,
That there securely she may take her Rest;
For all her Labours past she asks but this,
That she may lye thus bury’d when she dies.

The Silk-Worm (which also willingly parts with her Stock and Labour for the Benefit of Mankind) makes a small reserve of Silk, sufficient for her Winding-Sheet, which when she has finish’d, she dies therein, and is as nobly Interr’d, as all the Egyptian Art, with its fine Painted Rowlers of Cyprus, Lawn or Silk could make her.

Other Insects, as Flies, Ants, Gnats, and the like, which are not dispos’d with Organs to perform such Works, yet have this in particular, that they can outdare the most resolute Indian |Some are Burn’d and others Embalm’d.| (when, without any previous Exhortation, they suddenly leap into the Funeral Pyre of a Candle or Torch, and outvie the costly Embalming of Arabia) when they voluntarily fly into liquid Amber, and by that means obtain a more noble and incorruptible Sepulture than any other Creature. These have had Poets to write Funeral Orations to their immortal Praise, as the two Epigrams in Martial of a Viper and Pismire in some measure testifie, Lib. 4. Ep. 59. and Lib. 6. Ep. 15. Witness also Brassavolus of the Pismire, and Cardanus’s Mausoleum for a Flie: Nor could Virgil (the Prince of Poets) omit taking notice of the well order’d Funerals of the Bees, Georg. Lib. 4. l. 255.

——Tum Corpora Luce carentum

Exportant Tectis, & tristia Funera ducunt.

And crowds of Dead, that never must return }

To their lov’d Hives, in decent Pomp are born; }

Their Friends attend the Herse, and near Relations mourn. }

Dryden.

Ælian, Lib. 5. cap. 49. reports, That if one Elephant finds another dead, he will not pass by ’till he has got together a great heap of Earth and flung it over his Carcass; so, in all other Creatures, Nature has provided both Burial and a Grave for them. |Brutes Bury’d with Pomp and Magnificence.| Nay it is yet further remarkable, that such Brutes as have either prov’d faithful or loving to their Masters, or done any extraordinary Action, have been bury’d with wonderful Magnificence, and had Tombs and Inscriptions made in Honour of them. Cimon the Athenian bury’d those Horses he had been thrice a Victor with in the Olympick Games, with great Pomp near his own Sepulchre. Also Alexander the Great made a magnificent Funeral for his Horse Bucephalus, building a City where he dy’d, and calling it after that Beast’s Name in memory of him. After his Example, several of the Roman Emperors and Cæsars, such as Augustus, Caligula, Nero, Adrian, Antoninus, Commodus, &c. bury’d their favourite Horses, and adorn’d their Tombs with Epitaphs, as you may find in Barthius, Lib. 23. cap. 8. Pliny, Lib. 8. cap. 22. Affirms such Horses as had conquer’d at the Olympick Games, were bury’d and had Tombs and Pyramids erected to perpetuate their Fame.

Tombs and Epitaphs in Honour of Brutes.

Xantippus carefully bury’d his Dogs, and, as Kornmannus reports, Polliacus erected, in the Garden of Cardinal Urbin at Rome, Columns of the finest Marble, of vast Expence, in Memory of his beloved Bitch, on which he inscrib’d this Epitaph:

Quod potui, posui tibi, fida Catella, Sepulcrum;

Digna magis Cæli Munere, quam Tumuli.

Candenti ex Lapide hæc tibi convenit Urna: fuisti

Candida tota Fide, candida tota Pilo.

Si Cœlum, ut quondam, Canibus patet, haud tua Terras

Incendet, sed Ver Stella perenne dabit.

My Faithful Bitch, to thee this Pile is meant;

More worthy Heaven than Mortal Monument:

Of whitest Stone ’tis fit thy Tomb I rear,

Since candid were thy Actions, white thy Hair.

If Heav’n, as formerly, to Dogs gives Place,

[2]Thy Star will never scorch, but cherish Human Race.

2. Alluding to the Dog Days.

Also in the House of that Famous Italian Poet Francis Petrarch, at Arqua, near Padua, there is a Tomb of a Cat, adorn’d with an Elegy, which Santorellus in his Post-Praxis Medica, p. 5. has Printed, with others of a Mule, a Crane, &c. Pliny, Lib. 10. cap. 43. says, a Crow (which imitated Human Voice, and which was wont every Morning to salute the Senators by their Names) was bury’d honourably, being carry’d out on the Shoulders of two Æthiopians, with a Crown before it, and a Trumpet sounding; the Person that kill’d it being ston’d to Death. Ælian, Lib 6. Animal. cap. 7. tells us, Marrhes, King of Egypt, built a Sepulchre for a Raven, which was wont to carry his Letters to and fro under its Wing; and, Lib. 7. cap. 41. he says, Lacydes, a Peripatetic Philosopher, had a Goose which us’d to follow him up and down, both at home and abroad, and whom for that Reason he Bury’d with the same Honour and Respect as he would have done a Brother or Son. The Stag which warr’d against the Trojans, was also honour’d with a Tomb; but it were endless to relate all the Brutes the Pagans have given Burial to, as Rhodiginus witnesses in Antiq. Lect. 58. cap. 13. The Parthians were accustom’d to bury their Horses, and the Molossians their Dogs, as Statius the Poet observes, Lib. 2. Sylvar. in Epicedio Pileti.

——Gemit inter Bella peremptum

Parthus Equum, fidosq; Canes flevere Molossi:

Et Volucres habuere Rogos, Cervusq; Maronis.

The Parthian mourns his Horse in Battel slain;

For faithful Dogs Molossians weep in vain.

Ev’n Birds had Funeral Piles, and Virgil’s Stag.

But the Egyptians surpass’d them all, for they Embalm’d the Bodies of several Animals, as Cats, Crocodiles, Hawks and the like, that so they might keep them the longer to adore and admire: If therefore Pagans have been thus careful to honour Brutes with all the Rights of Burial, how much more ought we who are Christians to afford this last Duty to one another?

We find in the first Age of the World, says Cambden, the Care of Burial was so great, that Fathers laid a strict Charge on their Children, concerning translating their Bodies to their Graves, every one being desirous to return in Sepulchra Majorum, into the Sepulchres of his Ancestors. Thus those Holy Patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph and the rest, did not only lay the heaviest Commands about their being bury’d, but also about transferring their Bodies to such Places as they nam’d: So Jacob, at his Death, charg’d his Son Joseph to carry his Body into the Sepulchre of his Fathers, Gen. 47. 30. and 49. 29. And Joseph commanded his Brethren they should remember and tell their Posterity, that when they went away into the Land of Promise, they should carry his Bones along with them, Gen. 50. 25. Now this Filial Care was not only their last and greatest Duty to their Parents, |Burial a Work acceptable to GOD.| but also a Work well pleasing and acceptable to GOD; an Example whereof we have in Tobit, who being blind, GOD sent his Angel Raphael to cure him, as a Reward for his pious Care in burying those who had been slain by King Sennacherib in his wrath, and cast without the Walls of Nineveh: But altho’ the King’s Servants forceably took away his Goods, and sought to put him to Death; yet when he heard one more had been strangl’d, and cast out into the Market-Place, he was so zealous in his Care, that tho’ he was just set down to Meat, he tasted not of it, ’till he had fetch’d him up into a private Room, and when the Sun was set, he ventur’d to make a Grave and bury him. |To our Saviour.| Likewise our Saviour (being to rise again the Third Day) commended that good Work of those Religious Women, who pour’d pretious Ointments, with sweet Odours, on his Head and Body, which they did in order to his Burial. Moreover, the Gospel has crown’d those with immortal Praise that took down Christ’s Body from the Cross, and gave it honest and honourable Burial. This signifies, says St. Austin, that the Providence of GOD extends even to the Bodies of the Dead (for he is pleas’d with such good Works) and builds up a Belief of the Resurrection, by which, says he, we may learn this profitable Lesson, viz. How great the Reward of Alms done to the Living must be, since this Duty and Kindness shown even to the Dead is not forgotten of GOD.

Burial of the Dead was accounted by the Antients a Work of Piety and Religion, because they esteem’d it both an Act of Justice and Mercy:

An Act of Justice.

Of Justice, in that Earth should be return’d to Earth and Dust to Dust; for, What could be more just than to restore to Mother Earth her Children, that as she had furnish’d them at first with a Material Being, Food, Raiment, Sustenance, and all things necessary, so she might at last receive them again into her Bosom, and afford them lodging ’till the Resurrection? |Of Mercy.| The Antients also thought it an Act of Mercy to hide the Dead in the Earth, that the Organs of such Divine Souls might not be torn and devour’d by wild Beasts, Birds, &c. Cicero in his Oration for Quinctius calls Burial an Act of Humanity. |Of Humanity.| Valerius Maximus, Lib. 5. cap. 1. Humanity and Mildness. Seneca de Benefic. Lib. 5 cap. 20. Humanity and Mercy. Ammianus Marcellinus, Lib. 31. |Of Piety.| A necessary Office of Piety; and St. Ambrose in the beginning of an Oration of his on the Death of the Emperor Theodosius, The last and greatest Office of Piety. Isocrates commending the Athenians for the great Care they took to bury their Dead, says, It was a mark and token of their Piety towards the Gods, since it was they and not Men that had establish’d that Law. Also Servius observes Virgil call’d Æneas by the name of Pious, because of the Funeral Honours, he, with so much Care and Application, had always paid to his Relations and Friends. Plato speaking of the several kinds of Justice, has not omitted what belongs to the Dead; nay Aristotle thought it more just to help those that were depriv’d of Life, than to assist the Living. The Latin Phrase also intimates how just a thing it is to bury the Dead, where it calls Funeral Rites, Justa Exequiarum, or Justa Funebria, quia justum est, justa facere, solvere, peragere. Nay it has no other appellation in that Language than that of Justice, and in Greek of a lawful Custom, Piety and Godliness, so that amongst both the Romans and Grecians, who have been the two most potent and civiliz’d Nations of the World, when they would express one had been Interr’d, they said, they had done him Right or Justice, and such as neglected to do the like they accounted void of all Piety and Humanity.

Burial the Care of the Gods.

And to shew how Religious an Act it is to bury the Dead; the Gentiles assign’d the Care of all Funerals and Sepulture to certain Gods they term’d Manes, whose chief was Pluto, call’d also Summanus, whence all Tombs and Monuments came to be dedicated, Diis Manibus. Homer, Euripedes, Aristotle and others have accounted Sepulture an Honour and Reward to Mens Actions; and on the contrary look’d on all such as miserable and unhappy whose Bodies lying unbury’d, wanted that last Happiness.

An Honour to the Dead.

Decent Burial, with suitable Attendants of Kindred and Friends, according to the Quality of the Person (says Weever of Funeral Monuments, p. 25.) is an Honour to the Deceas’d. Hezekiah, says the Text, slept with his Fathers, and they bury’d him in the highest Sepulchres of the Sons of David, and all Judah and the Inhabitants of Jerusalem did him Honour at his Death, 2 Chron. 32. 33. Thus in all Ages Burial has been accounted an Happiness and Quiet to the Mind, and a Favour from GOD, whereas the want of it has been look’d on as an Evil and Misery, a Curse and Punishment, a Disgrace and Ignominy.

An Happiness, Favour and Kindness.

First, In the Holy Scripture it is call’d an Happiness, Favour and Kindness: This was foretold by Ahijah, and to be shewn to Abijah, 1 Kings 14. 13. And all Israel shall mourn for him, and bury him; for he only of Jeroboam shall come to the Grave, because in him there is found some good Thing towards the Lord GOD of Israel, &c. It was accounted a Glory to be bury’d in a Sepulchre, even to Kings who were laid up in stately Tombs and Monuments, as in their Beds, and thus the Prophet Isaiah speaks, Chap. 14. ver. 18. All the Kings of the Nations lye in Glory, every one in his own House. By the same Prophet GOD comforted Zedekiah King of Judah when he was taken Captive, telling him he should never die in War or Battel, or be deny’d Burial; but that the King of Babylon should give his People leave to bury him in an honourable manner, and with such Solemnities as the burning of sweet Odours, &c. at his Funeral, as they were wont to use at the Exequies of their Kings, who liv’d belov’d of their Country, 2 Chron. 16. 14. But thou shalt die in Peace (says Jeremiah to him, Chap. 34. ver. 5.) and with the Burnings of thy Fathers, the former Kings which were before thee, so shall they burn Odours for thee, and lament thee, &c.

Especially in the Family-Sepulchre.

To die a natural Death, to be lamented and bury’d, and to lye in the Sepulchre of their Fathers, was ever accounted a great Honour and Happiness among the antient Jews, for which the Scripture-Phrase, throughout the Old Testament, is Sleeping, which implies lying at Rest and undisturb’d as well as Dying. Thus, in 2 Kings 8. 24. it is said, And Joram slept with his Fathers, and was bury’d with his Fathers in the City of David. And 9. 28. His Servants carry’d Ahaziah in a Chariot to Jerusalem, and bury’d him in a Sepulchre with his Fathers in the City of David. And Cap. 15. ver. 7. So Azariah slept with his Fathers, &c. Also, ver. 22. and 28. of the same Chapter, and in many other places, as 1 Kings 2. 10. So David slept with his Fathers, and was bury’d in the City of David. By all this it is to be observ’d, that in this City was the usual Royal Burying-Place, where both David and all his Successors, that were of any Note or Renown, were bury’d. This appears likewise by 1 Kings 11. 43. 2 Chron. 12. 16. and 14. 1. and 16. 14. and 21. 1. David’s Sepulchre was made of such durable Materials, and so well kept and repair’d by his Posterity, that it continu’d ’till the Apostles Time (Acts 2. 22.) which was the space of almost 2000 Years.

Of which Deprivation is a Curse.

On the contrary, to die an unnatural Death, and in another Country, as also to be depriv’d of the Sepulchre of ones Fathers or Ancestors, was always esteem’d a note of Infamy and a kind of Curse. Thus, in 1 Kings 13. 22. the seduc’d Prophet, because he disobey’d the Word of the Lord, was reprov’d by him who was the occasion of his Error, as he had it in Command from GOD, and withal told, That his Carcass should not come into the Sepulchre of his Fathers. Isaiah speaking in derision of the Death and Sepulture of the King of Babylon, which was not with his Fathers, in that his Tyranny was so much abhorr’d, thus notes his Unhappiness, Chap. 14. 19, 20. Thou art cast out of thy Grave, like an abominable Branch; and as the Raiment of those that are slain, thrust thro’ with a Sword; and shall go down to the Stones of the Pit, as a Carcass trodden under Foot. Thou shalt not be join’d with thy Fathers in Burial. That is, he should want all the Honours of Sepulture, and all such Funeral Rites as were to have been paid to him as a most potent King, and that he should not be admitted to lye in the Grave amongst his Ancestors, but that his Corps should remain neglected above Ground unbury’d, and be trodden to pieces like vile Carrion.

And the Judgment of GOD.

The want of Burial proceeds also from a Judgment of GOD, as will appear from the Example of Jehoiakim, the Son of Josiah King of Judah, whom for his great Wickednesses, such as Covetousness, Oppression, shedding innocent Blood and the like, GOD threatned with the want of Burial (a severe Sentence!) and that he should have no solemn Funeral or honourable Sepulture, such as Kings usually have, nay, not so much as an ordinary Burial among the Graves of the common People, Jer. 26. 23. but be cast out like Carrion in some remote Place: And Chap. 22. 19. |To be bury’d like an Ass.| He shall be bury’d with the Burial of an Ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the Gates of Jerusalem, that is, as an Ass is wont to be bury’d, he being more worthy the Society of Beasts than Men. The Greeks call the Burial of an Ass, ἄταφον τάφον, according to that Expression of Cicero, Insepulta Sepultura; and Sanctius expounds it, that to be bury’d like an Ass, is to be cast out into a sordid and open Place, which neither covers the horrid and obscene Parts of the Body, nor hinders the Dogs or Birds from tearing it to pieces, but as in Chap. 36. ver. 30. His dead Body shall be cast out in the Day-Time to the Heat, and in the Night to the Frost; that being so expos’d, it may the sooner putrefie, and become the more vile and loathsom; and that the sight of a King’s Body, in such a condition, should be an hideous Spectacle and horrid Monument of GOD’s heavy Wrath and Indignation unto all that should behold it, Isaiah 66. 24. Wherefore Ecclesiastes wisely concludes, Chap. 6. 3. A Man had better have never been born than to have no Burial. The People of Israel (crying unto GOD against the barbarous Tyranny of the Babylonians, who spoil’d GOD’s Inheritance, polluted his Temple, destroy’d his Religion, and murther’d his Chosen Nation) amongst other Calamities, thus complain for the want of Sepulture, Psal. 79. 2, 3. The dead Bodies of thy Servants have they given to be Meat to the Fowls of the Heavens, the Flesh of thy Saints to the Beasts of the Earth. Their Blood have they shed like to Water round about Jerusalem, and there was none to bury them. Here the Prophet observes, that GOD suffers his Church sometimes to fall to great Extremities, to exercise their Faith before he delivers them; as at other times he deprives the Wicked of Sepulture, to bring them to Repentance by such an ignominious and shameful Punishment. Thus, for the Pride and Wickedness of Jezebel, the Prophet Elijah pronounces GOD’s Vengeance against her, saying, In the Portion of Jezreel shall Dogs eat the Flesh of Jezebel, and her Carcass shall be as Dung upon the face of the Field, so that they shall not say, this is Jezebel, and there shall be none to bury her, 2 Kings 9. 10, 36, 37. |To become like Dung rotting upon the Earth.| By the Comparison to Dung is shown how odious and contemptible a Thing it is to be cast out unbury’d, and to be trodden under Foot, to lye expos’d to the Air and Weather, to rot and stink or become Food to Birds, Beasts and Reptiles. Jeremiah foretelling the Desolation of the Jews, acquaints them, Chap. 19. 7. Thus says the Lord of Hosts, I will cause them to fall by the Sword before their Enemies, and their Carcasses will I give to be Meat to the Fowls of the Heavens, and to the Beasts of the Field, and none shall fright them away, Chap. 7. 33. Deut. 28. 26. Also speaking of their Kings, Princes, Priests and Prophets, he tells them that Their Bones shall be spread before the Sun and Moon, &c. they shall not be bury’d, but be for Dung upon the face of the Earth, Jer. 8. 2. In other places of his Prophesie he tells them, They shall die of grievous Deaths and Diseases, they shall be neither bury’d nor lamented, but lye rotting like Dung, and be Meat for the Fowls of the Heavens and Beasts of the Earth, Chap. 16. 4. Chap. 25. 33. Chap. 34. 20. 1 Kings 14. 11. Chap. 21. 23, 24. 2 Kings 9. 10. and Ezek. 29. 4. Also in the 39. Chapter of the Prophet Ezekiel and the 17, 18, 19 and 20 Verses, GOD to shew his severe Judgment, calls the Fowls of the Air and Beasts of the Field to a Sacrifice of the Flesh and Blood of the Princes of the Earth, to eat their Fat and drink their Blood; abundance more Examples of the like nature the Scripture affords us.

Next we will consider what a miserable thing it was esteem’d, even by the Pagans, to lye cast out unbury’d. That disconsolate Mother of Euryalus, is not so much griev’d for the loss of her Son, who was slain in Battel, as for that he should be made a Prey to the Birds and Beasts, whom therefore she thus bewails:

Heu Terra ignota, Canibus data Præda Latinis

Alitibusq; jaces. Virg. Æn. 9. v. 486.

Cold on the Ground, and pressing foreign Clay,

To Latian Dogs and Fowls he lyes a Prey. Dryden.

Also the same Poet represents Tarquitus thus insulting over his conquer’d Enemy, Æn. 10. v. 557.

Istic nunc, metuende, jace: non te optima Mater

Condet Humi, Patriove onerabit Membra Sepulchro;

Alitibus linquere Feris, aut Gurgite Mersum

Unda feret, Piscesq; impasti Vulnera lambent.

The vengeful Victor thus upbraids the Slain:

Lye there, Inglorious, and without a Tomb,

Far from thy Mother and thy Native Home;

Expos’d to salvage Beasts and Birds of Prey,

Or thrown for Food to Monsters in the Sea.

Dryden.

So great was the Honour of Sepulture amongst the Pagans, says Quenstedt, De Sepult. Vet. p. 24. |Sepulture deny’d Enemies out of Revenge.| That when they design’d to shew the greatest Envy and Reproach to their most inveterate Enemies, they depriv’d their Bodies of Sepulture, as is noted in the History of the Heroes in Homer, in the War between Polynices and Eteocles the Theban, and other antient Histories, as likewise in Claudian, De Bello Gild. v. 39. Now Mezentius fearing this, does not desire Æneas to spare his Life, but earnestly entreats him to afford him Burial, Virg. Æneid, Lib. 10. v. 901.

Nullum in Cæde Nefas, nec sic ad Prælia veni;

Unum hoc, per, si qua est Victis Venia Hostibus, oro

Corpus Humo patiare tegi, &c.

Nor ask I Life, nor fought with that design;
For this, this only Favour let me sue,
(If Pity can to conquer’d Foes be due;)
Refuse it not; but let my Body have

The last retreat of Human Kind, a Grave. Dryden.

Turnus also intreats the like Favour:

Et me, seu Corpus spoliatum Lumine mavis,

Redde meis. Æneid, Lib. 12. v. 935.

Or if thy vow’d Revenge pursue my Death,

Give to my Friends my Body void of Breath?

Sepulture strictly observ’d in War.

However, generally speaking, Sepulture was observ’d as well in Time of War as Peace, to which purpose Heralds or Embassadors were wont to be sent to make Truce ’till they could bury their Dead; which if deny’d, says Grotius, the Antients thought their War more lawful and just. Thus Hannibal, a sworn Enemy to the very Name of Romans, is said by Livy, Decad. 3. Lib. 2. to have sought the Bodies of Caius Flaminius, Tiberius Gracchus and Marcellus Roman Generals, conquer’d and slain by him, that he might bury them. Likewise Philip of Macedon is equally to be commended for his Humanity, in performing Funeral Rites and Ceremonies towards his deceas’d Enemies; of which see Peter Faber, Lib. 3. Semestr. cap. 13. p. 183. who also gives the like account of his Son Alexander, in that after he had overcome Darius, he granted leave to his Mother to bury him after what manner she pleas’d, and withal commanded the same Honour to be afforded the Persian Nobles; as also that all such Soldiers as were found slain should be bury’d with care, as is recorded by Q. Curtius, Lib. 3. Valerius Maximus likewise, Lib. 9. cap. 8. tells us the Athenians so strictly observ’d this Custom in their Wars, |Generals put to Death for neglecting it.| that they punish’d those Generals with Death that neglected to bury the Slain, tho’ otherwise they were Men of Valour and had done several extraordinary Exploits. |Others have perform’d it with great Care.| Plutarch in his Lives, informs us how careful Nicias, an Athenian General, was in this point, for he commanded his whole Army to halt, while he honour’d two slain Soldiers with Burial and a Tomb. The like pious Care is mention’d of Æneas to Misenus, by Virgil in his 6th Æneid, v. 232.

At pius Æneas ingenti Mole Sepulchrum

Imponit, suaq; Arma Viro, Remumq; Tubamq;

But good Æneas order’d on the Shore }

A stately Tomb, whose Top a Trumpet bore, }

A Soldier’s Faulchion, and a Seaman’s Oar. Dryden. }

The Romans in general as well as the Grecians carefully bury’d their Enemies, nor would they defraud them of any Funeral Rites, says Suidas. The like Rhodiginus, Lect. Antiq. Lib. 17. testifies of the Hebrews, by whose Law the Enemy was not to be left unbury’d. Nor must we pass by the Humanity of the Northern People, who as Olaus Wormius in Monument. Danic. Lib. 1. cap. 6. writes, thought it deserving the greatest Praise, to exercise this Hospitable Piety of burying the Carcasses of their Enemies, to whom they bore no farther Malice after their Deaths, but afforded them friendly Sepulture. Amongst others, an Example of this nature is fetch’d out of Saxo, a most eloquent Danish Historian, who in the Third Book of his History, which he wrote about 500 Years ago, introduces Collerus pronouncing this wise and elegant Oration to his Enemy Horvendillus, with whom he was going to engage in Fight:

Quoniam, says he, Exitus in dubio manet, invicem Humanitati deferendum est, nec adeo Ingeniis indulgendum, ut Extrema negligantur Officia. Odium in Animis est adsit tamen Pietas, quæ Rigori demum opportuna succedat, nam etsi Mentium nos Discrimina separant, Naturæ tamen Jura conciliant. Horum quippe Consortio jungimur, quantuscunq; Animos Livor dissociet. Hæc itaque Pietatis nobis Conditio sit, ut Victum Victor Exequiis prosequatur. His enim suprema Humanitatis Officia inesse constat, quæ nemo Pius abhorruit. Utraq; Acies id Munus, Rigore deposito concorditer exequatur. Facesset post Fatum Livor, Simultasq; Funere sopiatur. Absit nobis tantæ Crudelitatis Specimen, ut quanquam Vivis Odium intercesserit, Alter alterius Cineres persequatur. Gloriosum Victori erit, si Victi Funus magnifice duxerit; nam qui defuncto Hosti Justa persolverit, superstitis sibi Favorem adsciscit, vivumq; Beneficiis vincit, quisquis extincto Studium Humanitatis impendet. Which may be thus English’d: By reason the Event of what we are going about is doubtfull, let us mutually engage to shew Humanity to each other, nor so far indulge our Passions as to neglect the last Duties. We have Malice in our Hearts, let there be likewise such a Piety as may opportunely succeed our Rigour; for tho’ a difference in our Minds happens to divide us, the Law of Nature will reunite us. Tho’ we are never so far seperated by Envy, this will bring us together again. Let it therefore be the Condition of our Piety, that the Conqueror follow the Herse of the Conquer’d. Herein the last Offices of Humanity consist, which no good Man ever yet refus’d. Let both Armies then suspend their Hatred to perform this Duty. After Death let Envy be remov’d and secret Prejudice disarm’d. May every kind of Cruelty forsake us, tho’ living we hated each other, let us lovingly accompany one anothers Ashes. ’Twill be a Glorious Thing in the Victor Magnificently to Interr the Vanquish’d; for he that performs Funeral Rites to a slain Enemy, will be sure to have a surviving Friend, and whoever employs his Study in Humanity towards the Dead, cannot thereby fail of obliging the Living.

The Ancients fear’d Sea-Burial.

Thus have the Ancients always provided for their Funerals, in case they were slain in Battel; but when they dy’d at Sea, then were they destitute of all such hopes, therefore dreaded that Element for fear they should become a Prey to Fish or any Marine Monster, which was a great check and damp to their Spirits in an Engagement, Storm or the like. Both the Greek and Roman Hero’s, who fear’d not Death in Land-Fights, as hoping the same Place where they fought might afford them a peaceful Grave, were yet mightily concern’d and dismay’d at the thoughts of a Naval-Combat, or when they were in danger of Shipwrack, and this because they then saw themselves on the point of being for ever depriv’d of Sepulture. Thus Achilles, who brav’d all manner of Dangers, could not, as Homer confesses, keep himself from being daunted at that of Shipwrack, when he found himself ready to bulge in the River Xanthus. A like Fear of Scipio’s, the greatest Captain the Romans ever had, Silius Italicus mentions, who tells us, tho’ he had so many Times, without the least concern or dread, seen Rivers of Blood running down, yet was he most terribly affrighted in passing the River Trebia, where he saw himself in danger of drowning. The same account Statius gives of Hippomedon, who, as he says, could without any Trouble have presented his Body to the dint of a thousand Swords, yet was not able to abide the Thoughts of being cast away in the River Theumesia. Also that stout General Æneas, tho’ he fear’d neither Fire nor Sword, yet was so afraid of Water, that being like to sink in a Storm, he thus exclaims:

Extemplo Æneæ solvuntur Frigore Membra.
Ingemit, & duplices tendens ad Sydera Palmas,
Talia Voce refert: O terq; quaterq; beati,

Queis ante Ora Patrum, Trojæ sub Mœnibus altis,

Contigit oppetere. Æneid, Lib. 1. v. 96.

Struck with unusual Fright, the Trojan Chief

With lifted Hands and Eyes, invokes Relief:

And thrice and four Times happy those, he cry’d,

That under Ilian Walls, before their Parents, dy’d.

Dryden.

In a Word, this was the Death Ovid could by no means brook, and that upon this score only, that it would deprive him of Burial:

Non Lethum timeo, Genus aut miserabile Lethi:

Demite Naufragium; Mors mihi Munus erit.

Est aliquid, Fatove suo, Ferrove cadentem

In solida moriens, ponere Corpus Humo:

Est mandata suis aliquid sperare Sepulchra,

Et non æquoreis Piscibus esse Cibum.

I fear not Death, nor value how I die;
Free me from Seas, no matter where I lye.
’Tis somewhat, howsoe’er one’s Breath depart,
In solid Earth to lay one’s meaner Part;
’Tis somewhat after Death to gain a Grave,

And not be Food to Fish, or sport to ev’ry Wave.

For what Reason.

The Ancients fear’d to die at Sea, because dead Bodies, being toss’d to and fro with the Winds and Waves, were often dash’d against Rocks, and never lay at rest, nay, perhaps were at last devour’d by greedy Fish, or torn to pieces by the sharp Talons and Beaks of Sea-Fowls; whereas to rest in the Grave was accounted the greatest Happiness (whence Sepulchres came to be call’d, Requietoria) but to be depriv’d of it the greatest Misery and Punishment, nay the vilest Ignominy and Disgrace.

Want of Burial a Punishment.

To want the Honour of Burial was held among the Egyptians one of the greatest Punishments could be inflicted, wherefore they deny’d it to executed Criminals, whose Bodies they gave to the Birds and Beasts, as may not obscurely be gather’d from Joseph’s Interpretation Gen. 40. 19. thus speaking to the chief Baker, Within three Days shall Pharaoh lift up thy Head from off thee, and shall hang thee on a Tree, and the Birds shall eat thy Flesh, &c.

Hence it was the Greeks, either refus’d all manner of Sepulture, or at least decent Burial, to Infamous Persons, or such as had committed any Notorious Crime. Thus they burned not those, according to Custom, who kill’d themselves, but bury’d them in an obscure, ignoble Place, without any Funeral Ceremonies, Tomb or Inscription. Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 16. Bibl. cap. 6. relates, It was enacted by Law, that one convicted of Treason or Sacriledge should be cast out unbury’d; which Persons also by the Athenian Laws were prohibited Burial in Athens, as Xenophon tells us, Lib. 1. Ἑλληνικῶν. Pausanias likewise says the Arcadians cast out unbury’d, without their Territories, the Traytor Aristocrates, whom they had ston’d to Death. Among the Romans, those that kill’d themselves were prohibited all manner of Sepulture, either that others might thereby be deterr’d from so making away with themselves, or because they thought it unreasonable any Hands should be employ’d to bury him, whose own had destroy’d himself. Tarquinius Priscus order’d all such dead Bodies to be fix’d on a Cross, to be view’d by all the Citizens, and afterwards to be devour’d by Birds, &c. as Pliny relates in his Natural History, Lib. 36. cap. 15. Albertus Leoninus in his Process. Criminal. says, If any one kill’d himself (as being either weary of a tedious Life, or impatient of Pain or Trouble, or else to avoid condign Punishment, or for any other Cause whatsoever) his Body was cast out upon a Dunghill, to have a common Sepulture with Dogs, &c. but however it was more customary to have his Goods confiscated, and his Body hung on the Furca. The Milesian Virgins were deterr’d from hanging themselves by a Law of the Senate, that Self-Murderers should be deny’d Burial, and have their Bodies dragg’d naked thro’ the Streets, in the same Rope they had hang’d themselves with. All such Persons as were hung upon this Furca or Gibbet, were by the Laws deny’d Sepulture, and a Centry, says Petronius, was set to watch them, lest any Body should take them down.

Burial deny’d to others.

Hence also, according to the common custom of Germany, &c. the Bodies of such as were Traytors, Highwaymen, Murderers, &c. were either fix’d upon Poles, set up on Wheels, or hung upon Gibbets, there to remain a Prey to ravenous Birds, or else to corrupt with the Sun and Rain, and dissolve into a putrid and stinking Gore, and all this to the end that others, by such an horrid and deform’d Spectacle, might learn to fear and be deterr’d from such like Crimes. He that commits Treason is by our Laws adjudg’d, says Weever in his Funeral Monuments, p. 22. to be hang’d, drawn and quarter’d, and his divided Limbs to be set up on Poles in some eminent Place, within some great Market-Town or City. He likewise that is found guilty of the crying Sin of Murder, is usually hang’d up in Chains, there to continue ’till his Body shall be consum’d, and this at or near the Place where the Fact was committed. Likewise we are accustom’d to bury such as lay violent Hands upon themselves, in or near the Highways, with a Stake thrust thro’ their Bodies, and this to terrifie all Passengers by that so infamous and reproachful Burial, not to make away with themselves. Those that are found guilty of other criminal Matters, after a little hanging, are cut down and indeed bury’d, yet seldom in a Christian manner, or in the Sepulchre of their Fathers, unless their Fathers like them happen to have their Graves near or under the Gallows. |Difference between Ecclesiastic and Criminal Burial.| Hence the Canonists, says Quenstedt, De Sepult. Vet. p. 49. distinguish between Ecclesiastic or Decent Burial, and Criminal or Ignominious: They call that Decent to which Solemnities, Rites and Ceremonies are allow’d according to the Custom of the Country, but term that Ignominious which is without Decency, and where all manner of Ceremonies are omitted, nay they have not so much as the Tolling of a Bell, or a Prayer or Psalm us’d for them.

Some sort of Burial a Punishment.

Thus, as some Criminals have been deny’d Christian Burial, as an ignominious Punishment, so others by reason of more heinous Offences have been bury’d alive: Korah, Dathan and Abiram for murmuring and rebelling against Moses were swallow’d up alive by the Earth, Numb. 16. 30, 33. They and all that appertain’d to them, went down alive into the Pit, and the Earth clos’d upon them: But they were not only bury’d alive, and after that manner descended into a Sepulchre, but likewise into Hell, as some Commentators observe, for an eternal as well as temporal Punishment. The Vestal Virgins being defil’d, suffer’d this Punishment as the most miserable that could be inflicted; for the Romans in case of this Crime, bury’d them alive in the Campus Sceleratus, as Plutarch in Vita Numæ Pompilij observes, and we read in Constitut. Crim. Caroli, p. 131. the same was inflicted on such as kill’d their Children.

To be deny’d all manner of Burial, or to be bury’d dishonourably or alive, have ever been thought severe Punishments; |To be dug out of the Grave both a Curse and Punishment.| so likewise to be dug up again, after Christian Burial, is a shameful Disgrace and equally Ignominious. Thus in contempt of the deceas’d wicked Priests, King Josiah took their Bones out of their Sepulchres and burn’d them, 2 Kings 23. 16. Also the Prophet Jeremiah foretold the Jews how GOD would bring out of the Grave the Bones of their Kings, Princes, Priests and Prophets, and expose them to the Sun and Moon, &c. Chap. 8. v. 1, 2. In prophane History it is reported of Sylla the Dictator, that he dug up the Bones of Caius Marius, and commanded them to be flung into the Sea; wherefore when he dy’d himself, he order’d his own Carcass to be burn’d, that his Bones might not have the like ill Treatment from his Enemies, Pliny’s Natural History, Lib. 7. cap. 54. Such disturbing the Deceas’d in their Tombs, I look upon to have given the first occasion of burning Dead Bodies, yet I think this latter as obnoxious to ill Usage, since it would be a less difficult matter to deprive Urns of their Ashes, scatter them before the Wind, sow them in the Sea or barren Sands, or in a word, make a Paste of them to feed Fowls with, or a Compost, out of which might be form’d ridiculous Imagery, to make sport for Children, or diversion for Men. An Example of both these kinds of the violation of the Dead, has been known to be acted either out of Malice to Enemies, or as a Punishment to Oppressors and Tyrants. The one is conspicuous from what Saxo Grammaticus relates in the Fourth Book of his History, that the Body of one Fengo a Tyrant, being judg’d worthy neither of an Urn nor Sepulture, his Ashes were order’d to be dispers’d by the Winds, for it was not thought reasonable that Country should protect his Ashes which he had depriv’d of its Liberty. The other is confirm’d by the Usage of the Roman Emperor Vitellius, who as Suetonius reports, cap. 17. after various Mockeries, was dragg’d to the Gemoniæ, cut into very small pieces, and afterwards flung into the Tyber. Heliogabalus likewise was first dragg’d about the Streets of Rome, then thrown into a Common Shoar, and soon after into the Tiber, as Sextus Aurelius Victor and Lampridius relate.

There was another sort of Sepulture us’d antiently, viz. To be cover’d over with a great heap of Stones, which was accounted by the Jews an ignominious kind of Burial, |Another ignominious Burial.| and therefore only us’d to Malefactors, Rebels, &c. Thus we read when Joshua had taken Achan, he commanded his People to stone him to Death, and raise over him a great heap of Stones, Chap. 7. v. 25, 26. Likewise Joshua commanded his Servants to take down the Body of King Ai, whom he had hang’d on a Tree, and cast it without the City-Gate, raising over it a great heap of Stones, Chap. 8. v. 29. Thus were the Jews wont to bury such as dy’d ignominiously, that it might serve as a Monument to warn others from committing the like Offences. Nor was Absalom thought worthy of common Sepulture, much less of the Honours he had design’d for himself, by the Pillar he had rais’d, but was flung into a Pit, and pil’d over with great heaps of Stones, that the Place might be remark’d by the Name of such a disobedient Son and notorious Rebel, 2 Samuel 18. 17. also that his ignominious Death might be suited with a like Burial; for altho’, in his Life-Time, he had built a Pillar (like one of the Pyramids or Obelisks of the Kings of Egypt) in the King’s Dale, ver. 18. a very pleasant and fruitful Place, where the Kings us’d their Sports and Recreations, and a great Concourse of the Nobility every Day resorted; there, to shew his Pride and vain Glory, rais’d he this Pillar, that after his Death it might serve as a Monument to eternize his Memory, yet GOD depriv’d him of so noble a Sepulture, and afforded him no other than to be bury’d in a great Pit, under a huge heap of Stones, as a common Malefactor.

And a Curse.

Now thus to be bury’d was accounted a Curse, as is confirm’d by Lamentations 3. 53. and Ezekiel 32. 29, 30. From hence we infer, that if some kinds of Burial denote a Curse and Disgrace, as well as not being bury’d at all, Funeral Ceremonies and Expences are necessary to shew what Burial is Honourable and what Ignominious: Otherwise, if we should find a Carcass unbury’d and expos’d to the Air, or see a Grave in the Highway or other Place, where Burial was not us’d, we should be apt to reflect on this disgraceful Object, and from thence judge the Person to have been either some notorious Criminal, a Self-Murderer, or at least one that had dy’d some ignominious Death, and had been accordingly bury’d: Therefore, to avoid all such like Censure, it is convenient Burial should not only be distinguish’d between such as have liv’d piously or prophanely, between those that have propagated the Laws and good Constitutions of a Country, and such as have wickedly destroy’d them, but even amongst honest People themselves, according to their Qualities, Estates and Professions; for should a Cobler and a Prince be bury’d after the same manner, such Extravagancies would bring reflection and contempt on Burial in general, and they might say with the Poet:

Marmoreo Licinus Tumulo jacet, at Cato parvo;

Pompeius nullo: Quis putet esse Deos?

Worthless Licinus in a rich Tomb lies, }

Whilst the great Cato for a poor one dies; }

Pompey for none: Who’d think the God’s were wise? }

Having thus sufficiently shown and prov’d, that both according to the Laws of GOD and Man, the Bodies of the Just are not to be despis’d or cast out unbury’d, I will in the next place acquaint you with other Particulars, |Particular Ceremonies of Funerals, not to be neglected.| which are necessary to Funerals, without which a Prince’s Interment would be as ignoble as a Malefactor’s; nor are we to think a private burying a Corps in the Night-Time without any Ceremony or Attendance, can discharge our Duty in this last and indispensable Particular. We must study likewise a Method for the well ordering a dead Body, as Washing, Anointing, Embalming, Dressing, and all other Expences, Rites and Ceremonies relating to Funerals in general. In these points, since the Ancients differ’d very much, it will be material to consider how far all, or any of these Ceremonies are either lawful, necessary, or commendable. In order to this, to the end we may treat of each in its proper place, and be as succinct as we can, we will divide these Funeral Ceremonies into such as were us’d to Persons when they were dying, or else perform’d afterwards to their dead Corps.

Custom of kissing the Dead.

First, It was a Custom among the Hebrews to kiss the Dead, as appears from Gen. 50. 1. Joseph fell on his Father’s Face, and wept upon him, and kissed him: whereby he express’d his sincere Affection to his deceas’d Parent, notwithstanding by his Death he was for ever to be separated from him, yet his Filial Duty still remain’d ready to perform those Offices due to the Dead, such as Embalming, and the like. This Custom of kissing the Dead seems likewise to be taking a solemn leave of them at their departure out of this World, till they should have the happiness of meeting them in another. But the Romans had a different Sense of this Matter, for when the sick Person was just expiring, the nearest Relation or Friend, by a Kiss receiv’d his last gasping Breath, whereby they imagin’d the Soul of the Deceas’d came out of his Body thro’ the Mouth, and was the same way transfus’d into and receiv’d by them; nor did they only kiss their Friend and Relation when just expiring, but also when his Body was going to be laid on the Funeral Pile. This the Christians imitate now a days, when they likewise kiss the Deceas’d just as he is going to be nail’d up in his Coffin, or to be carry’d out to his Grave; but as for the other Ceremony, they have ever abhorr’d it as a most superstitious and ridiculous Opinion. Both the Pagans and Christians without doubt, look’d on Death as a Journey or Peregrination to another World, therefore by kissing their Dead, they took their solemn Farewel of them, as we do when we part with a Friend that is going to Travel, &c. Hereupon we always find written on their Tombs, Abiit non Obiit, and as Grethserius relates, Lib. 1. De Fun. Christian. when the Greeks came to a Burying, both Friends and Relations kiss’d and took leave of the Dead in these words, Vade, cum Natura nos vocaverit, sequemur. Go, when Nature calls, we’ll follow. But let the Cause be what it will that induc’d the Ancients to kiss their Dead, it were better totally to forbear it, since to the Dead they are of no use, and to a dying Man are rather a Disturbance than any Relief: Moreover, to the saluting Friend, those ill Scents and Vapours, which proceed from the Mouth and Nostrils of the sick Person, may be an infectious Breath, and prove not a little prejudicial to him; therefore it is in no wise either convenient or useful to kiss a Person that is just dying, or one that is already Dead.

Closing the Eyes.

The next Thing to be done after the Person was dead, was to close his Eyes, and this Ceremony was for the most part perform’d by the nearest Relation, as by the Husband for the Wife, Et vice versa, by the Wife for the Husband; also by Parents towards their Children, and by Children towards their Parents, and where such were wanting, one Friend did it for another. This Custom was in that esteem among the Hebrews, Greeks and Romans, that the very Thoughts of having it perform’d by their Kindred, mitigated, in some measure, the Pains and Agonies of Death they underwent, whereby they dy’d in much greater content of Mind than they would otherwise have done; whereas on the contrary, they look’d on themselves not a little unhappy to die in a Place where no Relations or Friends were present to perform that Office. This appears by Gen. 46. 4. where Jacob fearing he should die in his way to Egypt, by reason of his extream old Age, or the length of the Journey, and be thereby depriv’d of these Funeral Ceremonies; GOD to remove those fears and comfort him, told him, He should die in peace with his Children about him, and particularly that Joseph should lay his Hands on his Eyes, as the Text expresses it, which was as much as to say, he should close his Eyes, and take all other care of his Funeral.

Now why this Custom of closing the Eyes of the Dead was in such Esteem and Use among the Ancients, there seem to be two Reasons: First, It being natural to Men to die with their Eyes open, as Santorellus in his Post-Praxis Medic. p. 18. Philosophically proves; and Death being compar’d to Sleep, they desir’d to have their Eyes shut, the better to resemble sleeping and taking their Rest. Secondly, They might perhaps desire it, that the By-Standers might not be offended at such an unpleasant sight as a staring Corps, with its Eyes and Mouth open, must needs present, which every one knows looks very ghastly: Besides, the noisom Smells of the fermenting Stomach were thereby hinder’d from making too swift a passage into the Room, and offending the Company. That it is therefore convenient to use this Ceremony none will deny, yet must it not be practis’d too soon, lest the Person it is to be us’d to be not actually dead, but only in an Apoplexy, Lethargy, or the like, and so by keeping his Mouth shut with a Muffler, be suffocated. Nor are his Eyes to be clos’d ’till after he is actually dead, lest they open again, as Santorellus affirms they will; but this and other Ceremonies of the like nature, which can in no wise further Death, in case it should prove only an Apoplexy, &c. ought to be perform’d before the Corps be quite cold, for afterwards they are not easily to be brought to a graceful order, nor will make a handsom Corps, which the Ancients so much lov’d to see: Hereupon, in a short Time after the Person was dead, they clos’d his Eyes, |Shutting the Mouth,| shut his Mouth with a Muffler, plac’d his Head streight, brought his Arms to his Breast, his Legs close to one another, and then laid the whole Body, with its Members, in a natural form and posture. But before they proceeded to Anoint or Embalm the Body, |Conclamation,| they were wont to make great noises, to rowse and awake, if possible, his fainted Spirits, and thereby fully satisfie themselves whether he were really dead, or only asleep. To the same purpose they wash’d the Body with warm Water, to the end that if it were only numm’d with Cold it might thereby be recover’d. It was a Custom among the Greeks to make a mighty Noise with the tinkling or sounding of Brazen Vessels, |Sounding of Brazen Vessels.| but the Romans us’d Conclamation, or a general Outcrie, set up at equal Intervals before the Corps, by Persons who waited there on Purpose, which was done as Pliny, Lib. 7. cap. 52. of his Natural History, and Cornelius Celsus, Præf. Lib. 1. De Re Medica, tell us, either because they hop’d by this means, to stop the Soul which was now taking its flight, or else to awaken its Faculties, which they thought might only be silent in the Body without Action; for sometimes such as have appear’d to be Dead, have come to Life again as Kirmannus, De F. R. Lib. 1. p. 104. affirms, and several Physicians have given many Instances of Persons, who being bury’d thro’ haste in Apopletick-Fits, &c. have afterwards come to themselves, and many times miserably perish’d for want of Assistance. For this reason the Romans, as Pancirollus and Servius observe, lest they should be bury’d alive, kept the Bodies seven or eight Days, call’d upon them at Intervals, wash’d them with warm Water, and lastly us’d Conclamation before they burn’d them, which was their manner of Burial. But Santorellus in his Post-Praxis Medica, p. 25. proves Conclamation to be a useless and insignificant Custom. First, he says, It is ridiculous to use it to such as we are satisfy’d are really Dead, from the nature of their Disease and other Symptoms. And, Secondly, To those that we are doubtful of, as in case of Lethargies, Apoplexies, Hysteric Passions, Syncopes, &c. Since therefore this is no certain Rule to inform us, these Persons being many Times neither sensible of burning nor large Scarifications, How can we expect to excite them by Clamours? This also is confirm’d by an Experiment of Galen’s, viz. Whether a Woman was really Dead that lay in an Hysteric Passion; but it was so far from proving effectual, that when she came to her self, she declar’d she knew nothing of what had been done to her. ’Tis true in small Syncopes it may perhaps rowse the Spirits a little, but in Soporous Diseases, it is commonly an uncertain and ineffectual Remedy, therefore never to be trusted, so that we may pronounce it to be a Ceremony neither necessary to be us’d, nor useful to know whether the sick Person be dead or alive.

Washing the Corps.

The Custom of Washing and Anointing the Corps was in no wise peculiar to the Romans, but us’d likewise by the Hebrews, Greeks, Trojans and Christians, nay, in almost all the civiliz’d Parts of the World, yet ’tis certain it ows its Original to the Invention of the Egyptians. That it was us’d in the Primitive Church, appears by the Words of the Apostle, Acts 9. 37. And it came to pass in those Days she (Tabitha) was sick and dy’d, whom when they had wash’d, they laid in an upper Chamber. Also Johan. Chrysost. as we find in Theodoret, Homil. 84. Alphonsus Salmeron, Tom. 10. De Sepultura Christi; and others affirm Christ’s Body was wash’d before it was anointed. We read in Plutarch, that Philippus Libertus wash’d the Body of Pompey with Salt Water, which perhaps might be either because it was more Abstersive, or that it help’d to prevent Putrifaction, and it is not improbable the Egyptians might have been accustom’d to wash the Body with the same Pickle they us’d in the Salination, or with Phænician Wine, which they wash’d the Entrails and inside of the Body with, in order to the Preserving and Embalming it: But more commonly the Ancients us’d warm Water, both that they might thereby cherish and comfort the benumb’d and lifeless Limbs, and invite the natural Heat again into the Body, by doing which they better satisfy’d themselves whether the Body were really dead or not, and also that if it were past recovery, they might by thus cleansing the Body from all Filth and Purgings at the Nose, Mouth or lower Belly, render the Corps more decorous, and sightly, as ’tis a Custom among many at this Day, to comb the Hair, shave the Beard, and perfume the Corps with sweet Odours.

Two other Reasons are given for washing a dead Body, First, That it might be the fitter for anointing. Secondly, Johannes Buxtorfius, in Synagog. Jud. cap. 35. says, That it might be pure and clean when it came to give an account of its Sins. These Ceremonies were carefully practis’d among the Jews as well as the Greeks and Romans, according to what Maimonides in Tract. de Luctu, Chap. 4 Sect. 1. observes, Mos vel Consuetudo est in Israel, circa Mortuos & eorum Sepulturam, ut cum quis mortuus est, ejus Occulos occludant, & si Os ipsius fuerit apertum, Maxillas ejus ligant, ne iterum aperiatur. Obturatur etiam locus, per quem Excrementa ejiciuntur, sed hoc postquam Corpus fuerit Lotum. It was a Custom among the Israelites, says he, towards the Dead and their Burial, that whenever any one was departed, they closed his Eyes and shut his Mouth (keeping his Jaws close with a Muffler) that it might not open again. Then they stopp’d the vents of the Body, and lastly wash’d it.

Anointing the Body.

After the Body was wash’d, it was Anointed, which strictly speaking, was Embalming, and differ’d in nothing but preserving the Corps for a longer or shorter space, pursuant to the manner of performing it, the nature of the Drugs, or composition of the Ointment. This Custom of anointing the Dead was very common among the Egyptians, as Pliny in his Nat. Hist. Lib. 2. Cap. 37. writes, Egyptiis Mos est Cadavera adservare Medicata. It is a Custom among the Egyptians to keep their Bodies Embalm’d, that is, anointed and preserv’d by Aromaticks. This anointing was perform’d on the outside of the Body, with a composition of bitter and Aromatick Ingredients, after which, they stuff’d the inside with the same dry Spices and Gums as were us’d in the Ointment; in doing which, and rouling or dressing the Body, they spent Forty Days. Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. Bibliothecæ, No. 91. says, After they had wash’d the Body with Palm-Wine, wherein Aromaticks had been boil’d or steep’d, they first anointed it with Ointment of Cedar, and then with that of Myrrh, Cinnamon, and other Drugs. This not only preserv’d the Corps, but also made it fragrant and sweet, and of this Ceremony the Egyptians were the first Inventors. From them the Hebrews deriv’d their Custom of Embalming, which was us’d chiefly towards their Kings or Great Men. The first of this kind was when Joseph commanded the Physicians of Egypt to Embalm his Father Jacob, Gen. 50. 2, 3. from whom the Jews learn’d it, and brought it with them into the Land of Canaan: |The Hebrews Embalming different from that of the Egyptians.| But this manner of Anointing or Embalming among the Hebrews was very different from that of the Egyptians, for their Method was Thirty, Forty, and sometimes Seventy Days in performing, and that by Balsamic Matters put into the Cavity of the Body, they first taking out the Bowels and Entrails; but the Hebrew way was one short anointing and applying Aromatick and Balsamic Ointments to the external Parts, without any Embowelling, and this was done rather out of Respect to, and Veneration of the Dead, than to prevent any Putrifaction. Thus we read of King Asa, 2 Chron. 16. 14. That they bury’d him in his own Sepulchre, which he had made for himself in the City of David, and laid him in the Bed which was fill’d with sweet Odours and divers kinds of Spices, prepar’d by the Apothecaries Art, and they made a great Burning for him. That is, they laid his dead Corps on a Bed fill’d with such Aromaticks, prepar’d by the Apothecary, as were wont to be us’d in Embalming, and afterwards burn’d sweet Odours and Perfumes at his Funeral. Now this was accounted very Honourable to be done at the Exequies of Kings, and was afforded King Zedekiah, tho’ he dy’d in a strange Land, Jerem. 34. 5. Hereby it appears, thro’ the length and injuries of Time, they might lose that Art of Embalming which the Jews, their Ancestors, had learn’d from the Egyptians, or else had their Tradition so confusedly left to Posterity, that they were forc’d to deviate from the antient Custom; for the best construction we can put upon Embalming of the latter Ages, was anointing the Corps with bitter and Aromatick Ointments, compounded by the Apothecaries, |Jewish Embalming rather a Ceremony than Preserving the Corps.| which nevertheless was rather a Ceremony, and render’d the Corps sweet and fragrant, than prevented Putrifaction. Thus the most devout Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea Embalm’d the Body of Christ, both out of the Respect they bore him, and according to the Custom of their Nation. Thus, says the Text, They took the Body of Jesus, and wound it in Linnen-Cloaths, with the Spices (viz. about an Hundred weight of Myrrh and Aloes) as the Manner of the Jews is to bury, John 19. 40. Likewise Holy Mary anointed the Feet of Jesus, whilst alive, with a most costly and rich Ointment of Spikenard, which was done by way of Anticipation in order to his Burial, as the Words of our Saviour himself imply, John 12. 7. So also without doubt Lazarus, who was no mean Jew, was Embalm’d, nevertheless Martha fear’d he stunk, tho’ he had been Dead but four Days, John 11. 39. Thus you see the more Modern way of Embalming among the Jews, was only anointing the Body with an Ointment compounded of sweet Spices, whose chief Ingredients were Myrrh and Aloes, and which was not only very grateful to the Smell, but also dry’d up the Humidity of the Body, preventing an immediate Putrifaction, and likewise by its bitterness kept the Worms from eating it. The Custom of such like anointing the Dead was moreover very common among the Greeks, insomuch, says Athenæus Lib. 15. that they studied what Ointments were most agreeable and fitting for every Member of the Body. From them it descended to the Romans, and was accounted one of the most commendable Actions of this Life, as being an Honour which appertain’d to the Dead, as Pliny Nat. Hist. Lib. 12. cap. 1. relates, wherefore after they had wash’d the Corps, they anointed it, says he, with Odoriferous and Aromatick Ointments. The Babylonians either anointed their Dead with, or laid them in Hony. The Persians and Scythians did the same with Wax. The Æthiopians with a sort of Parget; and others us’d Compositions either of Salt, Nitre, Asphalt, Bitumen, Cedar, Balsam, Gypsum, Lime, Petrole, Naptha, Turpentine, Rosin, or the like, of which see Kirkmannus de F. R. p. 62.

Anointing the Dead to what purpose us’d.

Now the general Intention of these Anointings, was either that such Bodies as were to be bury’d might thereby smell sweet and pleasant, and be kept a long while uncorrupt, or else that those that were to be burn’d might not only catch Fire the sooner; but also to the end the Air might be perfum’d by the sweet smelling Ointments and Balsams, and thereby the Stench of the burning Flesh not be perceiv’d. Others give a threefold Reason for this sort of Embalming, as, First, A Physical, That all Stench and Putrifaction might be driven away from the Body. Secondly, A Civil, That it was a principal Honour exhibited to Just Men. And, Thirdly, A Mystical, It being a Testification of our Faith in the Resurrection of Bodies, and a Symbol of future Incorruptibility. Vide Quenstedt De Sepult. Vet. p. 85.

Attiring the Corps,

After the Body was wash’d and anointed, they wrapp’d it in fine Linnen, and drest it in a proper Habit. The first is only to be understood a Winding-Sheet, either intire, or in two, three or more pieces, fitted to the Head, Trunk and Limbs of the Body, bound on with Roulers; but the latter was various according to the sort of Garment, or Quality of the Deceas’d: The first was usually white, prepar’d by some Woman or Friend in the Persons Life-Time, on purpose for this particular use; the other was of divers colours, as Purple, Scarlet, &c. and of several degrees of Richness, according to the Rank, Quality or Profession of the Deceas’d, or as he had perform’d any extraordinary Exploit in War, or otherwise honourably behav’d himself for the Honour of his Country. So that as the one was such as he usually wore in his Life-Time, the other was more Splendid, and given for a Reward to his Virtues. Hence it is the Dead were term’d proud, as having never wore so rich a Garment during their Lives, says Sosia apud Plautum in Amphitruone. This Custom is said to have been first us’d by the Greeks, but if we enquire more strictly into it, we shall find this, as well as other Ceremonies, owes its Origin to the Egyptians, tho’ the manner of performing it be different; |With fine Linnen and a Vest.| for the Greeks cover’d their Dead from Head to Foot, first with fine Linnen, and then put over that a white Vest, which was a sort of Pallium or Cloak they wore commonly when alive. So likewise the Athenians and Lacedemonians dress’d their Dead in a Garb suitable to every ones Condition, and honourably adorn’d such as had behav’d themselves well in War with a Purple or Crimson Vest, as Alexander Sardus de Mor. & Rit. Gent. Lib. 1. cap. 25. relates. As the Greeks put on their Dead the Pallium, so the Romans us’d their Toga or Gown, conformable to every One’s degree. That ordinarily us’d at the Funerals of vulgar Citizens was also white, but the Richer sort, as likewise those that had acquir’d Honour by their Valour and Vertue, were more splendidly Attir’d and carry’d out in State in the view of the Public, so that any one might know the Face and Sex of the Deceas’d from the manner of their Cloaths and Ornaments. Now this was so well observ’d by the Ancients, that as Juvenal, Satyr 3. informs us, in some parts of Italy, tho’ the Inhabitants were so rude as not to wear the Toga whilst they liv’d, yet would they not want it at their Deaths:

Pars magna Italiæ est, si verum admittimus in qua,

Nemo Togam sumit nisi Mortuus.

Some distant Parts of Italy are known,

Where none but only dead Men wear a Gown.

Also the Jews us’d to wrap their Dead in fine Linnen, but differ’d from others in this respect, That they did not hold it lawful to dress the Body of a Prince in a more costly Garment than others had, and as Cl. Salmasius apud Tho. Bartholinum de Latere Christi aperto, p. 377. observes, the Body of our Saviour was only wrapp’d in fine Linnen, his Head in a Sudarium or Handkerchief, and the whole swathed up from Head to Foot, with Rowlers like to the Swathes of Children. John Henry Heiddegger in Dissert. de Sepult. Mort. Sect. 30. divides this Linnen into three sorts: First, A short piece, which was call’d Sudarium. Secondly, A longer, nam’d Syndon. And, Thirdly, That which kept both these on, bound up the Hands and Feet, and cover’d the rest of the Body, was term’d Fascia or a Swathing-Band. This seems clearly intimated in the Gospel of St. John, 11. 44. And he that was dead came forth, bound Hand and Foot with Grave-Cloaths, and his Face was bound up with a Napkin: Therefore we are to understand, as the Evangelist here speaks of Lazarus, that the Arms were laid close to the Body, so that they almost reach’d the Knees, and afterwards rowl’d up together with it; |Why the Body should be Cloath’d.| but it may perhaps be ask’d why the Body should be Cloath’d at all, and why it might not be as well carry’d out Naked and uncover’d? To this Antonius Santorellus in his Post-Praxis Medica, p. 104. answers, That all Nations have taught the Body ought to be Cloath’d, since no Man has hitherto every been so immodest as not to be asham’d of his own Nakedness; for altho’ this seems to signifie nothing to the Dead, who are without Sense or Shame, yet because the Eyes of the Living are offended at the Nakedness of the Body, all have for that Reason thought fit to Cloath their Dead: Moreover, not only Deformity is thereby remov’d from a Corps, but we thus procure as much as possible that it may appear Comely, and besides ’tis more decent to see a Body Cloath’d than Naked. On this account the Greeks Cloath’d their Dead in white Vests or Garments, |Why with white Vests.| by reason of the purity of that Colour, White, according to Plutarch in Problem. being alone sincere, pure, and no ways infected, so that the Dead seem to be render’d in a manner simple, pure and separate from any mixture: But at length a certain Luxury of Ostentation crepp’d into these Habits, wherefore the Spartan Law-Giver Lycurgus, order’d that Persons of the greatest Valour and Worth should be bury’d in nothing but a red Coat, which was the common Dress of Soldiers, and that the rest should be deny’d even that; for he thought it wholly absurd and unreasonable the Dead should be deck’d with superfluous Ornaments and Riches, therefore neither Ointments nor Perfumes were us’d in that Common-Wealth, being look’d on as conducing nothing to the Felicity of the Dead, and therefore unworthy of the Lacedemonians Gravity. Thus St. Jerom inveighs against them: Cur & Mortuos vestros auratis obvolvis Vestibus? Cur Ambitio inter Luctus, Lacrymasq; non cessat? An Cadavera Divitum, nisi in serico, putrescere nequeunt? Why do ye Cloath even your Dead in Cloth of Tissue? Whence comes Ambition to continue amidst Grief and Sorrow? Cannot a Rich Carcass, think ye, rot out of a Silk-Covering? St. Chrisostom also thus exclaims: O inanem Gloriam! Quantam in Luctu Vim, quantam Amentiam ostendit! O empty Glory! How does it exert it self in Grief, how discover its Madness! Likewise in Homil. 84. he thus writes, Tu cum audieris Nudum Dominum resurrexisse, cessa, quæso, ab insana Funeris impensa. Quid sibi hoc superfluum vult & inutile Dispendium, quod ipsis, qui faciunt, plurimum affert Detrimenti, Mortuis nullum Utilitatem vel Damnum potius? Sumptuosa namq; Sepultura nonnunquam Causa est, ut Fures Cadaver effodiant, & nudum & insepultum projiciant. Thou when thou shalt hear thy Lord rise from the Dead, naked and unadorn’d, refrain, I beseech thee, from thy vain Funeral-Expences. What signifies all this superfluous and unprofitable Charge, which many times prejudices the Living, yet never does any Good to the Dead, but rather Harm? For oftentimes it happens a costly and sumptuous Interment, tempts Thieves to dig up the Rich Carcass, and throw it out Naked and unbury’d. Hence St. Austin, speaking of his Mother, says, Illa iminente Die, non curavit Corpus suum sumptuose contegi. She with her last Breath did desire her Body might not be splendidly Interr’d. Notwithstanding this, the aforesaid St. Chrisostom approves the use of these Things in a moderate way; for after he had so severely inveigh’d against them, he thus concludes, Non ut Sepulturam tollam, dico absit, sed Luxuriam & superfluam Ambitionem. I am not for taking Burial wholly away, far be that Thought from me, but I would have Luxury and unnecessary Ambition retrench’d.

Antonius Santorellus thinks the Body ought to be carry’d out cover’d, as well in respect to the Living as the Dead, to the Living, lest they may be offended by some small Perspirations of the Carcass, and to the Dead; lest being uncover’d, it might be more liable to external Injuries. For this Reason the Egyptians, who were wont to keep their Dead publickly in their Houses, richly attir’d them in fine Linnen, and adorn’d them with Gold and precious Stones; also painted them with Hieroglyphicks, thereby setting them forth in the most noble manner. Thus by such a kind of Cloathing as is us’d in Embalming, viz. wrapping in Cerecloth, &c. all other Inconveniencies are prevented, nor can it be thought so great a Vanity to Cloath a preserv’d Corps as one that is corrupt and putrifying; but we may allow it reasonable enough to adorn such in a moderate way, suitable to its Quality.

Crowning the Dead.

When the Body was dress’d, they Crown’d it, which Custom was first us’d by the Greeks, Lacedemonians and Athenians, from whom it descended to the Romans: Now if the Deceas’d had, thro’ Valour in War, obtain’d but any one of the honourary Crowns, it was put on his Head, and carry’d out with him to his Burial; and this, to the end the Reward of Virtue might in some measure be enjoy’d after Death. For this reason Cicero observes, Lib. 2. De Legibus, That the Laws commanded that Crown which was gotten by Virtue, should, without fraud, be put on him that obtain’d it, and that such Ornaments of Praise belong’d to the Dead. Other Persons were Crown’d with Chaplets of Flowers and green Branches, such as Lillies, Roses and Violets, Olive and Bay-Leaves, and the like precious Flowers and Plants. With these they likewise adorn’d the Couch the Body was to lye on, as the Jews did theirs with sweet Odours and Spices, as we have before observ’d of King Asa, 2 Chron. 16. 14. Also in like manner as we at this Day fill Coffins with the like Perfumes, or for want of them, with sweet Herbs and Flowers, viz. Rosemary, Lavender, Marjoram, Time, Flowers of Jessamin, Orange, Lillies of the Valley, &c.

Whence Deriv’d, and to what End.

This Ceremony of Crowning the Dead, Suidas thinks was either taken from the Games, wherein the Conquerors were rewarded with Crowns of Leaves, signifying the Dead had finish’d their Course, or was design’d to express the unmix’d and Everlasting Pleasures the Dead were to enjoy upon their Removal out of this sinful and troublesom World, for Garlands were Emblems of Mirth and Rejoycing, therefore usually worn at Banquets and Festivals. The same may be observ’d of Ointments and Perfumes, the constant Concomitants of Gaiety and Joy. But whatever was the cause of these Customs being so generally observ’d by the Heathens, it was not approv’d by the Primitive Christians, but look’d on as little less than Idolatry, as may be particularly seen in Minutius Fælix in Octav. p. 109. and in Tertullian de Corona Mil. Nevertheless, Antonius Santorellus in his Post-Praxis Medica, p. 151. says, If Crowns were invented as Ornaments, and to preserve Health, Pleasure and Virtue, why may not the Dead be Crown’d? And since those who fought boldly and strenuously, were among the Heathens adorn’d with various sorts of Crowns, why may not the Christians, who fight for Eternal Health, and overcome more powerfull Enemies (the Lusts of the Flesh) be thought more worthy of such Crowns? Nor has it displeas’d some Christians, tho’ perhaps it might the Primitive, to carry a Garland before the Corps, or fill the Coffin, or strow the Way or Grave with Flowers, and this without any manner of Superstition. Thus Prudentius a Christian Poet writes:

Nos tecta fovebimus Ossa,
Violis & Fronde frequenti,
Tumulumq; & frigida Saxa,
Liquido spargemus Odore.

We on the cover’d Bones o’th Dead,
Sweet Violets and Leaves will strow,
Whilst the Tomb, that cold hard Bed,
Shall with our liquid Odours flow.

Laying out the Corps.

The next Ceremony that follow’d, was laying out the Corps, which after it was Wash’d, Anointed, Cloath’d and Crown’d, was brought from the inner part of the House into the Porch or Entrance, and laid at the very Threshold. The poorest People were laid on the Ground or a Bier in an ordinary Coffin, &c. But the richer Sort on a Bed or Couch, adorn’d sometimes with Jewels, Arms, Books and other Things in which they most delighted whilst they liv’d, but commonly with all kinds of fragrant and precious Flowers. Now the Reason why they thus plac’d the Corps in public View, was that all Persons might satisfie themselves whether the Deceas’d had any Wounds, or other Marks of an untimely and violent Death. The like Custom we have in those we call Searchers, who are to examine into the Cause of the Persons Death, make their Report accordingly, and give an Affidavit thereof: It may be farther observ’d, the Feet of the Deceas’d were always turn’d next the Door or Gate, to shew they were never to return after they were thus carry’d out. This Custom, says Pliny, is but according to the Course of Nature, for we usually come into the World Head foremost, but are carry’d out the contrary way, of which see Kornmannus de Mirac. Mortuor, Cap. 58. Whilst the Body lay in this Place, ’twas customary to give it constant Attendance, to defend it from any Violence or Affront that might be offer’d. The Corps being thus decently laid out on the Couch or Bier, is now rightly compos’d for Sepulture, and in a readiness to be carry’d out to the Grave, so soon as these Ceremonies shall be ended; the next Thing therefore we have to speak of is the carrying it out to be Interr’d.

Carrying forth the Corps.

Thus much was done before the Funeral, at it we may take notice of two Things, the Elatio or carrying forth, and the Act of Burial. What concerns the first of these will appear by our observing the Day, Time, Persons and Place; what Day after the Person’s decease was appointed for the Funeral is not well agreed on, nor does it seem to have been limited, but was various, according to the Custom of the Country, or Circumstance of the People. Alexander ab Alexandro in Lib. 3. cap. 7. Gen. Dier, tells us Bodies were kept seventeen Days and as many Nights before they were Interr’d. Also Servius was of Opinion, the Time of Burning the Dead was the Eighth Day after Death, and the Time of Burying the Ninth; but this must only be understood of the Funerals of Great Persons, which could not be duly solemniz’d without extraordinary Preparations, whereas Men of inferior Rank, were committed to the Ground without so much Ceremony and Pomp. The antient Burials seem to have been on the Third and Fourth Day after Death, nor was it unusual to perform Solemnities, especially of the poorer Sort, on the very Day of their Death, yet are there many Instances to prove no set number of Days were observ’d; however, this Care ought particularly to be taken, that the Dead be not carry’d out too soon, for thro’ too much haste, it has sometimes happen’d the Living have been bury’d for the Dead.

The Time of carrying forth the Corps was likewise various, |By some us’d in the Day and by others in the Night.| and us’d either in the Morning, at Noon, or in the Night, according to the Custom of the Country, or Conveniency and Condition of the Person deceas’d. Thus the Athenians made their Funeral Processions before the Sun-Rising, and the Greeks perform’d the like Ceremony in the forepart of the Day, or about Noon: So also the Hebrews bury’d their Dead in the Day-Time, as Sopranes, David. dig. fol. 487. asserts; but the Romans made use only of the Night, as the name of Funeral, Servius thinks, denotes, being, as he says, deriv’d a Funalibus, from the Torches, in like manner as the Vespillones (Bearers) were so call’d from Vesper the Evening; yet this Custom was not long observ’d at least in publick Funerals, tho’ it seems to have continu’d in private ones, nevertheless, the carrying of Torches and Tapers still remain’d in practice, even when the Dead were bury’d in the Day-Time. This was a greater extravagance than the other, inasmuch as tho’ in burying by Day they at first intended to suppress the Charge of Torches, &c. yet at last they not only burn’d these in vain to light the Sun, but also increas’d all other Funeral-Expences to that degree, that Laws were fain to be made to restrain them; but, omitting such superfluous Ceremonies, we must grant the Day-Time to be the fittest for publick Funerals, and the Night for private ones, both which have been us’d indifferently, as Occasion serv’d, as well by the Primitive Christians as others: The first were chiefly chosen whilst they were in a quiet State, but the latter were made use of in Times of Persecution.

How carry’d forth to the Grave.

Now as concerning the Act or manner of carrying forth the dead Body, from the House wherein it was prepar’d for Burial, to the place where it was to be interr’d, it is said of the antient Grecians, that they carry’d such out without any support, tho’ it was a more frequent Custom in the antient Church to bear the Dead on Mens Shoulders; afterwards they plac’d them in a Coffin, on a Bier, Bed, or Couch of State, and so convey’d them to the Sepulchre on their Shoulders. This Duty was generally perform’d by the next Heir or nearest Relations, and sometimes the Magistrates, Senators or chief of the Nobility bore the Bodies of those who had deserv’d highly of the Common-Wealth, of which see several Examples in Quenstedt, p. 114. but Persons of meaner Rank, nay, and sometimes even Great Men, that had been hated by the People, were carry’d forth to their Burial by the Vespillones or Sandapilarii, that is, the Sextons or common Bearers, who liv’d by that Employ, and in this last way of bearing out the Dead, we may suppose them to have us’d the Sandapila or common Bier, as the others did the Lecticæ or Lecti, that is, the Litters or Beds; for the Romans us’d two sorts of Biers, the one call’d Lectica, which was for the Rich, and the other Sandapila, for the Poor. We read of this Bed in the carrying forth of Abner, 2 Sam. 3. 31. where the Translation is, that King David himself follow’d the Bier, which word in Hebrew signifies a Bed. How this was wont to be perfum’d with Spices and deck’d with precious Flowers has been intimated before, as also how the Corps was Dress’d, Crown’d and expos’d to public View; but here we will take notice of the Pride and Vanity of the Romans, who were accustom’d to Paint or put a beautifying Wash on such whose Faces were deform’d, that they might thereby appear handsomer while Dead than Living, which Custom is said to be us’d even in France and Italy at this Day; but in case the Visage were very much distorted by its Change, bruis’d by the fall of an House, maim’d by any other Accident, or the like, so that it was not fit to be seen, then were they wont to throw a Covering or Pall over it.

Persons at the Funeral.

The Persons present at Funerals were the Dead Man’s Friends and Relations, who thought themselves under an Obligation to pay this last Respect to their deceas’d Parent or Friend, who commonly had Legacies left in his Will, that they might appear in decent Mourning, and accompany the Corps with greater Solemnity: Besides these, others were frequently invited to encrease the Funeral-Procession, but this only where the Laws did not restrain such Pomp as they sometimes did in some Places, either to prevent the Disorders that often happen’d at such promiscuous Meetings, or to moderate the excessive Charges of Funerals.

The Mourning-Habit.

The Habit these Persons wore was not always the same, for tho’ they sometimes put on Mourning, and, in common Funerals, retain’d their ordinary Apparel, yet were the Exequies of Great Men commonly celebrated among the Pagans, with expressions of Joy for the reception of the Dead into Heaven. The Herse was follow’d by abundance of Men and Women cloath’d in white Garments, and bedeck’d with Garlands, as is usual in Festival-Solemnities. The Funeral was solemniz’d with Pæans, or Songs of Triumph, and Dances: This Custom was in use among the Greeks. The Chineses, Syracusans and Argives mourn’d in white, as did also the antient Romans; but after their Empire was settl’d they us’d black. The Hebrews, &c. mourn’d in black; the Carthaginians hung their Walls with black, whence at this Day, to show the greater demonstration of Grief, Palaces of Emperors, Kings and Princes, as likewise Churches and Houses of private Persons, are upon like occasions us’d to be hung with black, which Custom was anciently practis’d by many Nations, by reason this Colour was accounted the most agreeable to Mourning and Sorrow.

The Funeral Procession.

Next we shall speak of the Funeral Procession, and of such Persons as went before and usually follow’d the Funeral-Bed: When the Herald had marshall’d all in good Order, the Procession began to move, and we are to take notice it was often made on Horseback or in Coaches; but at the Funerals of Persons, to whom a more than ordinary Respect was due, all went on Foot: First march’d the Musicians with Trumpets, Flutes, Cornets, Pipes and other Musical-Instruments, sounding most sorrowful and mournful Notes; next came the Præficæ or Women hir’d to mourn and sing doleful Songs in Praise of the Deceas’d: These us’d strange Shriekings and Gesticulations, beating their Breasts, tearing their Hair and the like, so that by their false Tears and feign’d Sorrow, they mov’d others to cry in good earnest. These foolish Songs and ridiculous Incantations Justinian the Emperor prohibited, introducing in their room Psalms and Hymns, which among the Christians continue to be sung before the Corps even at this Day, and that to cherish their Hearts and allay their Grief. If the Deceas’d had been eminent for his Warlike Atchievements, then the Arms, Standards and other Trophies taken by him were usually carry’d before him. Next follow’d the Priests and Religious Orders, tho’ the ordinary way was for the Body to go first and the rest to follow, whereby the Survivors were put in mind of their Mortality, and warn’d to remember they were all to go the same way the Deceas’d had gone before them: Then immediately after the Corps came the Relations or true Mourners, apparell’d in proper Habits, and the Women with their Hair dishevell’d and their Faces cover’d with Veils; the rest follow’d at some distance, and the Funeral-Pomp was clos’d up by the common People.

Manner of Mourning.

But to speak somewhat of the antient Manner of Mourning, you must know that was various according to the several Customs of Countries, yet this may be laid down as a general Rule amongst most Nations, that the better to express their Sorrow for the loss of a deceas’d Relation or Friend, they on occasion of his Death differ’d as much as could be from their ordinary Habit and Behaviour. Hence Mourners in some Cities demean’d themselves after the same manner that in other Countries express’d Joy, and what was esteem’d Rejoycing in some was in others a token of Sorrow: For Example, in some Places it was customary to wear short Hair, where long was a token of Mourning, but in others, where long Hair was in Fashion, Mourners were accustom’d to shave themselves. The most usual ways, whereby the Ancients express’d their Sorrow, was by refraining from Musick, Banquets and Entertainments, from Garlands or Crowning themselves, from Wine and strong Drink, and in a Word, from every thing that occasion’d Mirth, or look’d Gay and Pleasant: Such things were not judg’d fitting to be admitted into so melancholly a Society as that of Mourners, to whom even the Light was to be odious, and nothing desirable but Darkness and lonesom Retirements. These they thought best suited with their Misfortunes, and therefore sequester’d themselves from all Company and publick Solemnities, nay even refrain’d from the very Comforts and Conveniences of Life. They usually confin’d themselves within Doors, and abstain’d from all Luxury, Ointments, Baths, Venery, &c. and on the contrary fasted and put on black Habits, differing not only in Colour from their ordinary Apparel, but also in Value, being only of a course and cheap Stuff. They sprinkl’d Dust on their Heads, nay, rowl’d in the very Dirt, thinking they shew’d the greater Sorrow and Dejection by how much they were the more dirty and nasty. These Customs were likewise practis’d in the East, whence we find so frequent mention of Penitents lying on the Ground, and putting on Sackcloth and Ashes: |With Sackcloth and Ashes.| They were so far from wearing good Apparel, that they frequently burn’d their richest Goods and Cloaths, and rent and tore what they had off their Backs, on the first news of any great Calamity: Thus Reuben did, Gen. 37. 29, and Verse 34. Jacob rent his Cloaths, and put Sackcloth on his Loins, and mourn’d for his Son many Days. So in the 2 Samuel 3. 31. David commanded his Servants to mourn for Abner; and thus also mourn’d Hezekiah, 2 Kings 19. 1. See also Nehem. 9. 1. Esther, 4. 1. and Lamentations 2. 10.

Cutting and tearing their Flesh.

They also on such occasions shav’d off their Hair, beat their Breasts, cut their Flesh, and with their Nails tore holes in their Faces, that they might appear the more deform’d and discontented. These frantick Actions, tho’ practis’d sometimes by Men, were more frequent among Women, whose Passions were more violent and ungovernable; they wore their Hair long, dishevel’d and carelessly flowing about, contrary to the usage of the Men who shav’d theirs. The Heathens were so superstitious in these Ceremonies, that they extended the Practice of them to a higher degree than the Jews, for they hir’d feign’d Mourners to make frightful Howlings and sad Lamentations for the Dead, and were wont to cause even their Horses, Mules, &c. to share in their Sorrows, by shaving their Manes, and the like. These cruel and ridiculous Ceremonies were restrain’d by Laws made on purpose, to restrain such Excesses in Funerals; |Moderate Weeping commendable.| nevertheless a moderate Sorrow and Mourning was never disallow’d, but on the contrary commended and promis’d as a Blessing to the Godly, and the want thereof threaten’d as a Malediction or Curse, Isaiah 57. 1. To mourn at the Interment of our Friends (says Weever, p. 16.) is a manifest Token of our true Love: By it we express that natural Affection we had to the departed Person, but this ought always to be with a Christian moderation, whereby our Faith towards GOD is demonstrated. He gave us natural Affections, and commanded us to love one another, and is not pleas’d such Love should end with our Friends Life, but rather that we should retain all due Respect to his Memory. Antonio de Guevara in his 10th Letter, English’d by Mr. Savage, says, The Heart of Man is tender, and not able to part with any Thing it loves without Concern. This daily Experience teaches us even in Brutes, who will in like manner mourn for the Absence or Death of their Companions or Young; for this Reason our Author thus Expostulates, Why should we not, says he, be allow’d to shed Tears and lament over the Graves of our Friends, since we are of a superiour Nature to Beasts? Some account Weeping a weakness and effeminacy, but there are sufficient Examples to prove the contrary, |Us’d by Kings and Patriarchs.| for if such great and wise Men as Kings and Patriarchs wept, surely a moderate Mourning for the Dead is justifiable and pious; nay, the Holy Scripture shews how those devout Men were commended who made great Lamentations over Stephen’s Burial. We read in the Old Testament how Abraham mourn’d and wept for his Wife Sarah, Gen. 23. 2. and in Chap. 50. ver. 1, 10, 17. we find Joseph wept over his dead Father Jacob, and mourn’d for him: So King David follow’d the Bier of Abner weeping, and when he came to the Grave, both he and all the People wept, 2 Sam. 3. 31, 32. At another Time, when he heard the News of his Sons being slain, He arose and tore his Garments and lay on the Earth, and all his Servants stood by with their Cloaths rent, 2 Sam. 13. 31. likewise Verse 33, 36. when it was told that only Amnon was dead, The King’s Sons lift up their Voices and wept, and the King also, and all his Servants wept very sore. At another Time he made great Lamentation for his Son Absalom, 2 Sam. 18. 3. nevertheless he did not allow of immoderate Grief and Mourning, but reprov’d it himself, as you may read, 2 Sam. 12. 23. and this because it was vain to do so, and could never recover the Dead; so that when he bewail’d the Death of Saul and Jonathan, of Abner and Absalom, it was out of Love to them, and by reason the Common-Wealth had a loss by some of their Deaths, and because others of them died in their Sins. These may be sufficient Reasons moderately to mourn for the Dead; but we read of several other good Men who wept on other Occasions, as the Man of God, 2 Kings 8. 11. Hezekiah, 2 Kings 20. 3. Nehemiah 1. 4. and Christ himself, |By our Saviour.| who was never known to laugh, is recorded to have wept twice, once over the foreseen Desolation of Jerusalem, Luke 19. 41. and another Time over the Grave of Lazarus, John 11. 35. from which last, the Jews collected his Love towards the Dead: Now as Weeping on the Death of a Friend expresses our Grief for the Loss of him, and is done out of Respect and Love to him, so does it likewise moderate our Passion and allay our Concern, |Weeping allays Grief.| as Ovid in his Epistles speaks:

Flere licet certe, flendo diffudimus Iram.

We certainly may Weep, weeping allays our Grief.

And in the Fourth Book of his De Tristibus, Eleg. 3.

——Est quædam flere Voluptas,

Expletur Lacrymis, egeriturq; Dolor.

There is a certain Pleasure springs from Tears,

They ease our Grief and sooth our coming Years.

Also St. Ambrose, speaking of the Death of Valentine, says, Pascunt frequenter Lacrymæ, & Mentem allevant Fletus, refrigerant Pectus, & Mæstum consolantur: Est quoq; piis Affectibus quædam Flendi Voluptas, & plerumq; graves Lacrymas evaporat Dolor. Tears and Weepings oftentimes refresh the Mind, and comfort the afflicted Soul: There is a kind of Pleasure in Godly Passions, for frequently by many Tears Grief vanishes. Likewise St. Chrisostom makes this Comparison, Quemadmodum, says he, per vehementes Imbres, mundus Aer ac purus efficitur; haud secus post Lacrymarum Pluvias, Serenitas Mentis sequitur & Tranquilitas. In like manner as the Air is purify’d and cleans’d by vehement Showers, so from a greater Effusion of Tears, a Serenity and Tranquility of Mind follows. As for the other Uses of Weeping, see Santorellus in his Post-Praxis Medica, p. 30. who writes Philosophically of its Nature and Cause.

Following the Corps.

Besides these Mourners and Relations there follow’d a great number of Friends and Acquaintance to the Place of Burial; for it was not only look’d on as a Duty, but a religious Friendship to attend a Corps to its Grave. Thus we read, Joseph went up to Bury his Father, and with him all the Servants of Pharaoh, the Elders of his House, and all the Elders of Egypt, Gen. 50. 7. and this even from the Land of Egypt to Canaan. So King David and all his Servants follow’d the Bier of Abner, 2 Sam. 3. 31. and we read in Luke 7. 12. that much People of the City of Naim follow’d the Widow’s Son.

The Corps being brought forth to the Place of Burial, after the manner already describ’d, within or without the City, |The Act of Burial.| the next Thing was the Act of Burial. This has been perform’d various ways, but the two most common, were either Burying or Burning, whether of which be the most eligible we shall next enquire into. Burial is the more antient, as having been us’d in the Primitive Ages by the Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, and most other Nations, yet the two latter burn’d their Dead, as is pretended on the following Considerations. First, That Worms and such like vile Insects might be thereby prevented from corroding the noble Bodies of the Dead, and the Living be freed from the Infection and Stench of Carcasses rotting in the Earth. Secondly, Because Fire purefy’d the Dead, and was the quickest way of Incineration, or reducing Bodies to their first Elements, whereby the Soul being set at Liberty, might take its Flight to the Heavenly Mansions. Thirdly, Being so immediately reduc’d to Ashes, it could not be easily inform’d and mov’d about by the Devil, to the great Terror and Amazement of all People. And, Lastly, they likewise thought it secur’d them from the Exultation of the Enemy, in exposing and abusing their Corps, which last I take to be the true Occasion of Burning their Dead: For as Pliny says, Lib. 7. cap. 54. Sylla having dug up the Body of Caius Marius, his mortal Enemy, and fearing the like Fate, engag’d the People by an express Law, that they should for the future burn both him and others after they were dead, and this tho’ none of the Cornelii his Predecessors had ever been burn’d. From hence it was the Romans brought in the Custom of Burning their Dead, which was perform’d after the following manner:

Burning the Dead.

Having erected a Pile in form of an Altar, made either of ordinary Wood, such as Oak, Ash, Olive, Pine, Fir, and the like resiniferous Trees, which caus’d it easily to catch Fire, or else of odoriferous, such as Cedar, Cypress, Mirtle, &c. They plac’d the Corps with the Couch thereon, and then set round about the Arms, Sword, Belt or Spoils taken in War of the Deceas’d, his best Houshold-Goods and richest Apparel, his finest Horses, Dogs or the like, and in the more barbarous Ages his Slaves, all which, having first slain the Beasts, &c. they burn’d together with him. In some Places the Wives flung themselves alive into the Pile, and were burn’d with their Husbands, and commonly all such Things as the Deceas’d most valu’d while they liv’d, besides abundance of rich Presents brought by Relations and Friends, all sorts of Perfumes and sweet Odours, such as Cinamon, Cassia, Frankinsence, &c. and odoriferous Oils and Ointments were burn’d with them, as we read the Israelites us’d to do at the Burials of their Kings, as they did at that of Asa, 2 Chron. 16. 14. and other Places. When the Pile was burn’d down, the nearest Relations gather’d up the Ashes and Bones, |Ossilegium.| and having wash’d them with Wine, Milk or Water, put them into Urns made of different kinds of Matter, such as Gold, Silver, Brass, Marble, Glass, Earthen-Ware, Cedar, and the like; then they pour’d out Tears upon them, which being catch’d in small Vessels call’d Lacrymatoriæ, were reposited with the Urn in a Tomb.

Funeral Oration.

An Oration or Funeral-Sermon was likewise solemnly pronounc’d in Praise of the Deceas’d, by a Person appointed for that purpose by the public Magistrate. When the Funeral was over, other Ceremonies were perform’d in Honour of the Dead as Festivals, which may be reduc’d to these three Heads, Sacrifices, Feasts and Games.

Sacrifices.

The Sacrifices consisted of Liquors, Victims and Garlands; the Liquors were Wine, Milk, Water, Blood, Honey and liquid Balsam.

Feasts.

The Feasts were either Publick or Private: The Private were kept about the Tomb of the Deceas’d by the nearest Relations and Friends only, being prepar’d both for the Dead and Living. The Repast design’d for the Dead consisting commonly of Beans, Lettices, Bread and Eggs, or the like, was laid on the Tomb for the Deceas’d to come out and Eat, as they fancy’d he would. The Public Feasts were when the Heirs or Friends of some Rich or Great Dead Person oblig’d the People with a general Treat to his Honour and Memory.

Games.

The Funeral Games consisted of a great number of Gladiators, fighting with Beasts, &c. the Ancients thinking the Dead delighted in such bloody Sacrifices; but this Barbarous Custom of burning the Dead continu’d no longer than the Time of the Antonines, who being virtuous Princes abhorr’d such Cruelties, and therefore brought Burial again into Practice. Thus it plainly appears, Burial was not only more antient but more eligible than Burning, since one was admitted upon Choice and the other by Compulsion; for so soon as such cruel minded Persons were remov’d, Burial was again introduc’d: Besides, as it appears by Holy Writ and the Canon-Law, Burning was a most ignominious way of dealing with the Dead, to which none were expos’d but such as had lain with Beasts or their own Sex; and we at this Day only burn Female-Traitors, or such as have kill’d their Husbands, &c. thereby to show the Heinousness of their Crime; on the contrary, Sepulture was always esteem’d Honourable among GOD’s People. Thus the Patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph, as also Moses were bury’d, and the last particularly by GOD himself, Deut. 34. 7. Likewise the Holy Fathers, St. Austin, St. Ambrose, St. Gregory, and most of the Primitive Christians were for having their Bodies bury’d and not burn’d: |Situation of the Dead in their Sepulchres.| But as for the manner of Burying or placing them in their Sepulchres, that was various, according to the different Opinions or Customs of several Nations, a few of which we shall here relate. The Egyptians set dead Bodies on their Feet, as Solinus observes:

————Ægyptia Tellus
Claudit odorato post Funus stantia Busto
Corpora.————

The Egyptians, when the Funeral-Pomp was made,

Shut up in odorous Tombs the standing Dead.

The Phænicians bury’d the Dead on their Backs, yet turn’d them to the West, in Imitation of the Setting-Sun, as the Athenians did to the East in regard of its Rising. The Nasamones, a People of Africa, did not only for the greatest part die sitting, but also bury’d their Dead in that Posture, and the Inhabitants of Megara plac’d their Dead with their Faces downwards: So Diogenes desir’d to be bury’d, his Reason being, that as he believ’d the World would at last be turn’d topsie-turvy, he then should lye upright: Yet the general way was to lye with the Face upwards towards the Fountain of Life, and Abodes of the Celestial Gods, and to be so situated in the Grave, as to see the Rising-Sun. As for the Christians, they bury’d their Dead supine, as looking towards Heaven, where their sole Hopes were plac’d, and towards the East as waiting for the Resurrection.

Next let us consider the Places where the Ancients us’d to bury their Dead, and how they dug their Graves, and erected their Sepulchres and Monuments. In order to this you must know, First, That Sepulchres were not always of a kind, nor might all People be bury’d in the same Place of Sepulture, but proper ones were invented for different Degrees and Ranks, so that some were Public and some Private; some common or belonging to all, and others peculiar to one Family, and these again either built by the Persons whilst alive, or order’d by their Wills how they would have them erected after their Deaths. |Monuments Built during Life.| Thus Absalom in his Life-Time erected a Pillar to preserve his Memory in case his Issue-Male fail’d, 2 Sam. 18. 18. which Pillar, hewn out of a Rock or Quarry, he intended for his Sepulchre, and which, according to Sandys, is to be seen at this Day. Augustus Cæsar, in the 6th Year of his Consulship, built a Funeral-Monument for himself and Successors; but that Mausoleum, as Xiphilinus writes, being full in the Time of Adrian, that Emperor rais’d himself a Tomb or Sepulchre near the Pons Ælius. Nay it was usual for such as were careful of their Burials, to provide their own Tombs in their Lives Time, and this for their better Satisfactions, with these or the like Inscriptions:

VIVUS FECIT. VIVUS SIBI POSUIT.

VIVUS FACIENDUM CURAVIT.

For the same Reason King Henry the Seventh built a fair and glorious Chapel at Westminster as an House of Burial for himself, his Children, and such only of the Blood-Royal as should descend from his Loins, forbidding all others of what Degree or Quality soever to be interr’d in that sacred Mould, as appears by his last Will and Testament, Weever p. 20. Now, as for such as did not build their Monuments themselves, but only order’d them by their last Wills, it was held such Wills could not be violated with a safe Conscience, nor might any one change, alienate or detract from them; for since Monuments were invented as well to preserve Mens Memories as their Bodies, it would be very hard and inhuman to deprive them of them, yet has there been such base Heirs, as appears by the Inscriptions of some Tombs, which give the Reader a Caution therein, whereof I have inserted two.

Fallax sæpe Fides, testataq; Vota peribunt;

Constitues Tumulum, si sapis, ipse tuum.

Since Heirs are Faithless and your Wills neglect,

If ye are wise your own Tombs you’ll erect.

On others thus:

Certa Dies nulli, Mors certa, incerta sequentum:

Constitues Tumulum, si sapis, ipse tuum.

If Life’s uncertain, certain Death, and dubious what’s to come,

You would do well to secure all, by building your own Tomb.

That some Persons were better pleas’d to build their Tombs themselves, we read in 2 Chron. 16. 14. how King Asa was bury’d in his own Sepulchre, which he had made for himself in the City of David: And how Shebnah had taken care to have a Sepulchre hew’d for himself in Jerusalem. The same is also said of Joseph of Arimathæa, Matth. 27. 60. |Places of Sepulture.| The Places of Sepulture were of two kinds, Public and Private. The Public were likewise of two sorts, viz. Such as were allotted the Poor, and others that were us’d only by the Rich: |The Puticulæ.| The poor Servants, and such like mean Persons, were bury’d in Ditches or Graves call’d Puticulæ or Puticuli, and so nam’d, A Puteis fossis, vel quod Corpora ibi putrescerent. These were Holes in the Earth made like to Wells, between Mount Esquiline, the Walls of the City, and the Street which leads to the Gate Querquetulana; but these Wells infecting all the neighbouring parts of the City, Augustus for removing thereof, gave that Place to Mæcenas, who built a stately House, and made very fine Gardens there, as his Favourite Horace informs us. There were other public Places, in which those that had deserv’d well of the Common-Wealth had their Monuments, which were chiefly allow’d them as a Reward of their Virtues. As for the Roman Kings they were bury’d in the Campus Martius, |Campus Martius.| where the Mausolæum of Augustus stood, together with a vast number of antient Sepulchres and Monuments all along the River side.

Private.

Private Burying-Places were such as any one had in his own House, Garden or Fields: Thus we read Samuel was bury’d in his House at Ramah, Sam. 25. 1. and Joab in his House in the Wilderness, 1 Kings 2. 34. The antient Grecians were also bury’d in Places prepar’d for that purpose in their own Houses; and the Thebans had once a Law, that no Person should build a House without providing in it a Repository for the Dead; but this Custom was afterwards forbidden, as appears by that Passage in Isiodorus, Lib. 14. Orig. cap. 11. Prius autem quisq; in Domo sua sepeliebatur, postea vetitum est Legibus, ne fætore ipso Corpora Viventium contactu inficerentur. At first every one was bury’d in his own House, but afterwards it was forbidden by the Laws, lest the Living might thereby be infected. Tolosanus in Syntagm. Juris universal, Lib. 33. cap. 23. gives another Reason, Ne Licentia illa Sepeliendi familiares daret delinquendi & occisos occultandi Occasionem. Lest such a Liberty of Burying the Family, should give occasion of committing Murder and afterwards hiding it.

In Gardens.

Sometimes the Ancients bury’d in their Gardens, as we read Manasseth was interr’d in the Garden of his own House, in the Garden of Uzza, 2 Kings 21. 18. and Tacitus tells us Galba’s Body was bury’d by Argius his Steward, with little or no Ceremony, in his private Garden. We read also of a Sepulchre in the Garden made by Joseph of Arimathæa to lay our Saviour’s Body in, John 19. 41.

In Fields.

They likewise bury’d in Fields, and so the Patriarchs were said to be bury’d in a Cave in the Field of Machpelah, Gen. 23. 20. also ’tis related that Uzziah King of Judah slept with his Fathers, and was bury’d with them in the Field of Burial which pertain’d to the Kings, 2 Chron. 26. 23. Tho’ they term’d these two last Private, because they bury’d in Fields and Gardens belonging only to their own Families, yet, if it was possible, they always interr’d their Dead in that part of the Garden or Field which lay nearest the common Road or Highway, thereby to put Passengers in mind of their Mortality.

In Highways.

For this Reason they more frequently bury’d in the Highways and public Roads, that by seeing the Monuments of the Dead the Memory of them might not only be excited, but also the Living be encourag’d to imitate the Virtues of such Great Men as were represented on those stately Tombs, and likewise to admonish them, that what they were they should also be. This plainly appears by the Epitaphs and Inscriptions which always spoke to the Traveller after this manner:

SISTE VIATOR. ASPICE VIATOR. CAVE VIATOR, and the like.

In Mountains and Hills.

The Ancients likewise bury’d in Mountains and Hills. Joshua, Captain of the Hebrews, and Eleazar, Son of Aaron, were both bury’d in Mount Ephraim, Joshua 24. 30, 33. Judges 2. 9. and we read in 2 Kings 23. 16. that as Josiah turn’d himself, he spy’d the Sepulchres that were in the Mountain. Likewise the Grecians and Romans bury’d their Kings and Great Men either on the tops of Mountains, or at their feet, as Isiodorus, Lib. 15. Etimolog. cap. 11. observes. Thus Aventinus Sylvius, King of the Albans, was interr’d in the Hill that receiv’d its Name from him, as Titus Livius and Aurelius de Orig. Gent. Roman. testifie. Virgil reports the same thing of King Dercennus, Æn. 11. v. 850.

————Fuit ingens Monte sub alto,

Regis Dercenni terreno ex aggere Bustum.

A Tomb beneath a mighty Mount they rear’d

For King Dercennus.————

Hence likewise appears the Custom of raising a Mount over the Graves of great Persons, which Lucan Lib. 8. speaking of the Egyptians, has thus express’d:

Et Regum Cineres extructo Monte quiescunt.

Beneath a Mount their Monarchs Ashes rest.

So also Weever in his Funeral-Monuments, p. 6. observes, they were antiently wont to bury here in England either on ridges of Hills, or on spacious Plains fortify’d or fenc’d about with Obelisks, pointed Stones, Pyramids, Pillars, or such like Monuments. For Example, England’s Wonder on Salisbury-Plain call’d Stonehenge, the Sepulchre of so many Britains, who, by the Treachery of the Saxons, were slain there at a Parley: That of Wada the Saxon Duke near Whitby in Yorkshire, and those of Cartigerne the Britain, and Horsa the Saxon near Ailesford in Kent. It was a thing usual among our Saxon Ancestors (says Verstegan) as by Tacitus it also seems to have been among the other Germans, that the dead Bodies of such as were slain in the Field, and bury’d there, were not laid in Graves, but lying on the Ground were cover’d over with Turfs or Clods of Earth, |In Plains cover’d with Turfs, &c.| and the more Reputation they had had, the greater and higher were the Turfs rais’d over them. This some us’d to term Byriging, others Beorging, and some Buriging, which we now call Berying or Burying, which is properly a shrouding or hiding the dead Body in the Earth. Of these kinds of Funeral-Monuments you have many on Salisbury-Plain, out of which the Bones of Bodies thus inhum’d have oftentimes been dug. These Places the Inhabitants thereabouts call Beries, Baroes or Burroughs, which agrees with the words Byrighs, Beorghs or Burghs spoken in the same Sence. From hence the Names of divers Towns and Cities were originally deriv’d; Places first so call’d having been with Walls of Turf or Clods of Earth, fenc’d about for Men to shroud themselves in, as in Forts or Castles: Thus far Weever. We shall next take notice that the Romans antiently made their Graves of Turf, which they call’d Injectio Glebæ, and for the same Reason the Latin word Tumulus, which in its proper Sense imports no more than a Hillock, came afterwards to signifie a Grave or Tomb. These were compos’d of two parts, one the Grave or Tomb, and the other the Ground surrounding them, fenc’d about with Pales, Walls, or the like. Here we may observe that most of the Ancients Burials were without their Town and Cities, either for fear the Air might be corrupted thro the stench of Putrefy’d Bodies, or the Buildings endanger’d by the frequency of Funeral-Fires; wherefore they made choice of more convenient Places for their Interments in the Suburbs or Country, such as Mountains, Hills, Woods, Fields or Highways, which were barren Places; for as Plato, Lib. 12. De Leg. says, No Sepulchre was to be made in a fertile Soil or fruitful Field, but that Place was only to be us’d which was steril and good for nothing else.

Now tho’ it was forbidden both by the Greek and Roman Laws, |Burial in the City.| to bury within the Walls of Cities, yet was there nevertheless a Reserve made for some particular Persons, such as Emperors, Vestal-Virgins, and those that had merited Favour by some extraordinary Action or Virtue. It seem’d likewise an Honour due to Lawyers, that they who had kept the Citizens in a healthful Concord whilst alive, might when dead remain in the midst of them. Likewise we often read of Monuments erected in the Forum or middle of the City, but that we must look on as a Favour chiefly bestow’d on Men of Worth, and public Benefactors; nay, sometimes Persons of a more than ordinary Desert and Excellency were permitted to be bury’d in the Temples of the Gods; and some are of Opinion, such Honours paid the Dead were the first Causes of erecting Temples; see Arnobius, Lib. 6. advers. Gentes, and Isiodorus, Lib. 15. Origin. cap. 11. Nor are later Times wholly destitute of such Examples. We read moreover in the Holy Scripture, that Persons of eminent Ranks and Quality were bury’d in the City. So David was bury’d in the City call’d after his own Name, where also Solomon, Abijam, Asa, Jehosaphat, Joram, Ahaziab, Jehoash, Amaziah, Azariah, Jothan, Ahaz, Rehoboam, Jehoiada and Joash were bury’d, 1 Kings 2. 10. 11. 43. 15. 8, 24. 22. 50. 2 Kings 8. 24. 9. 28. 12. 21. 14. 20. 15. 7, 38. 16. 20. 2 Chron. 12. 16. 16. 14. 24. 16, 25. 27. 9. Ahab, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and the Kings of Israel were interr’d in the City of Samaria, and Amaziah in the City of Judah, 1 Kings 22. 27. 2 Kings 10. 35. 13. 9. 14. 16. 2 Chron. 25. 28. with abundance of other Instances, too many to be related here: Besides it has long been the Custom of most modern Nations to bury in their Cities and Churches their Kings, Princes, Nobles, Gentry, Poets, and Men of the greatest Parts and Merit. The Emperors and Arch-Dukes of Austria are bury’d at Vienna, the Kings of England in Westminster-Abbey, the Kings of France in the Monastery of St. Dennis, the Kings of Sueden at Stockholm, the Kings of Poland at Cracow, the Electors of Saxony at Fridberg, the Counts Palatine of the Rhine at Heydelberg, and the like, whereof see more Examples in Quenstedt, p. 205. and Weever, p. 8. but more especially in Panvinus de Rit. Sepeliendi, who gives a whole Catalogue of such Kings, Princes and Priests as have been bury’d in Churches. But to proceed to speak of the Nature and Distinction of such Places of Sepulture as the Ancients us’d, whether within or without the City, they were distinguish’d into Proper and Common, Family and Hereditary Burial-Places or Sepulchres.

Proper Sepulchres.

Proper Sepulchres were such particular Places as any one reserv’d for himself, where none had ever been laid before, and from whence he could by his Will exclude any of his Heirs. To this purpose they inscrib’d on their Tombs these Letters: H. M. H. N. S. that is, Hoc Monumentum Heredes non sequitur. Or these, H. M. ad H. N. TRANS. Hoc Monumentum ad Heredes non transit. Which Inscriptions are still to be met with in abundance of Places, and shew the Heir has no Right or Claim to Burial there.

Common Sepulchres.

Common Sepulchres were such as the Puticulæ for the poorer Sort, the Campus Martius for Men of Quality, Honour or Merit, the Ceramnicus for such as were slain in War, and other the like Places to bury Strangers in, call’d Poluandria. So we read the chief Priests of the Jews bought the Potters Field for this Purpose, with Thirty pieces of Silver, which Judas had taken to betray Christ, Matth. 27. 7.

Family-Sepulchres.

Family-Sepulchres were such as were only common to Heirs and Posterity, who had a right to be bury’d therein: Some again were only for the Husband and Wife, having this Inscription, Sibi & Conjugi; others for the Children likewise, inscrib’d Sibi, Conjugi & Liberis.

Hereditary-Sepulchres.

Hereditary-Sepulchres were such as the Testator appointed for himself and his Heirs, or acquir’d by Right of Inheritance. These sometimes belong’d to the whole Family, as to Children and Relations: Now for the better understanding how these Sepulchres were made, which were capable of holding such a number of Persons, we must observe they were certain Caves, Grots or Vaults dug under Ground, and divided into several Partitions, in which each Body being put up in a Coffin of Stone, Lead, Wood, &c. these Coffins were laid each in its own Apartment; for such Burial-Places were wont to have as many Divisions as they design’d Persons to be bury’d in them: Thus some became unlimited, possessing several Miles of Ground; such were the Cryptæ Kiovienses, which Herbinius has wrote a Book of, and the Catacombs of Rome and Naples, of which you have an exact Account in Bosio’s Roma Subterranea, and Bishop Burnet’s Travels. The Greeks call’d such a Burial-Place, ὙΠΌΓΕΙΟΝ, ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν, sub Terra, Hypogeum, and the Latins Crypta, deriving the Word from the Greek κρύπτη, a κρύπτω, abdo; quia abdita est. These serving not only for Sepultures to the Primitive Christians, but during the Time of Persecution, for hiding Places, where they held Synods and administred the Sacraments, as Panvinus in Lib. De Cæmiteriis, cap. 11 relates. These Subterranean Caves were at first dug only out of the Earth, but afterwards they were hew’d out of solid Rocks, or else curiously wrought and pay’d with Stone, being arch’d above, and adorn’d with no less Art and Care than the Houses of the Living; insomuch that it was customary to place Lamps in these Subterranean-Vaults, whither such Mourners as had a mind to express an extraordinary Concern for the Deceas’d, retir’d, cloistering themselves up for many Days and Nights, whereof we have an Example in Petronius’s Story of the Ephesian Matron. Thus the Egyptians and Persians bury’d in Caves dug out of solid Rocks, or at the bottoms of such stony Mountains, as Diodorus Siculus and other Writers inform us. There was also at Nismes in Languedoc a Crypta found, with a rich inlaid Pavement and Niches round about the Wall, in each of which gilded Glass-Urns full of Ashes were set in order. The Jews likewise hew’d their Sepulchres out of Rocks, into which they descended thro’ a narrow Passage, which was shut up with a Stone, as appears by that of Lazarus, John 11. 38. and that of Joseph of Arimathæa, wherein our Saviour’s Body was laid, Matth. 27. 60.

Cenotaphs.

Thus far we have treated of Sepulchres properly so call’d, now we will speak of such as were erected to preserve the Memories of those that were bury’d else-where, whence they came to be call’d ΚΕΝΟΤΆΦΙΟΝ, i. e. κενὸς τάφος, inanis Tumulus, Tumulus sine Corpore, a Sepulchre rais’d in Honour of some Person, and wherein his Body had never been laid. Of these there were two sorts, one erected to such as had been honour’d with Funeral-Rites in another Place, and the other for those who had never obtain’d any. First, They built these Sepulchres for Religions sake, by reason they thought the Souls of those that had been depriv’d of the Rites and Honours of Sepulture wander’d about, and could never pass the Stygian Lake: See page 21. Secondly, They esteem’d it the next Felicity to Sepulture to lye in their own Country, wherefore when any one died in a forreign Land, they thrice invok’d his Ghost or Soul, which thereby, as they thought, speedily hastening to them, they erected a Tomb or Monument for it. This without doubt afforded no small Joy and Comfort, by reason they believ’d in doing thus, their Bodies were driven under Ground to their own Country, and the Jews even at this Day believe, that immediately after their Deaths their Souls pass into the Land of Canaan. Nicolaius, Lib. De Luctu Græcorum, p. 17. It was also customary, among the nearest Friends and Relations, to build various Tombs for one and the same Person, and that in various Places, which they did to do the Deceas’d the more Honour, as Dionysius Halicarnasseus, Lib. 1. Antiqu. Roman. observes. We may also gather from Prudentius, Lib. περί στεφάνων that the Christians built Cenotaphs in Honour of their Martyrs, and Gretserius de Funer. Christi, Lib. 3. cap. 6. says, they were erected in Commemoration of the Deceas’d. Hence may be likewise gather’d the Use and Benefit of Tombs, |Use and Benefit of Tombs.| as First, That they were erected in Honour to the Deceas’d. Secondly, Often Built at the public Cost, as a Reward to Virtue and Valour. And, Lastly, they were moreover thought to be a Comfort to the Living; for as Theodoric gravely said, Bodies bury’d in Coffins and Tombs were esteem’d no small Consolation to Mourners, inasmuch as the Souls of the Deceas’d departed only from the Conversation of the World, whereas their Bodies did not for some time leave their surviving Friends: If therefore such Things could afford so great satisfaction to the Living, how much more would it delight them to see the Bodies of their dead Ancestors, with a long Lineage of their Family, so perfect as to distinguish their Persons and Sex by the preserv’d Features, and this without any offensive Smell or deform’d Aspect, as we are well assur’d both the Egyptians and the Inhabitants of Teneriff us’d to do, which is not even impossible to perform at this Day? The Ancients were so exceedingly carefull of every particular Ceremony in Funeral-Rites, that they made it the chief Point of their Religion to perform them, as an indispensible Duty their Gods requir’d of them, and their Laws strictly maintain’d; so that to neglect them was the greatest Cruelty, and to violate them a capital Crime and Sacriledge. They added every thing to their Sepulchres that could make them Sacred, Honourable and Respected, or which could transmit their Names to Posterity, their Fame to Eternity, and their Ashes to Perpetual Repose.

How adorn’d and with what Inscriptions.

Besides, they were wont to carve thereon the Arms, Trophies, Coat-Armour and Effigies of the Deceas’d, subjoining moreover such Elogiums and Inscriptions as best express’d their Family, Virtues, Studies, Emploiments, Works or noble Actions; their Condition of Life, Age, Time and Cause of Death, and in a Word, whatever else was Remarkable in them and worthy Commemoration. |How call’d.| These Structures for the Dead were call’d after several Names, from the several Uses they were put to when erected; for some contain’d whole Bodies, others their Ashes only, and some neither one nor the other, being only built to transmit the Memory of the Party deceas’d to succeeding Ages, whence they were call’d Cenotaphs. |Cenotaphs. Sepulchres.| Sepulchres were so nam’d a Sepeliendo, which signifies committing to the Ground, laying up therein, or hiding or covering with Earth, whence burying came to be call’d Sepulture, and Burial-Places Sepulchres. Scipio Gentilis, Lib. Origin. Sing. says, Monumentum quasi Munimentum dicitur, quod Causa Muniendi ejus Loci factum est. Monuments were sometimes very fitly call’d Muniments, |Muniments.| by reason they fenc’d in and defended the Corps from being torn out of its Grave by Savage Beasts, and likewise preserv’d the same from all farther Violation. They were call’d Tumuli, |Tombs.| quod coacervata ibi Terra tumeat, because Turf or Earth was wont to be heap’d over them, which the higher it was the more Honourable; but these being easily scratch’d up by Hyena’s, Wolves, and the like voracious Animals, and because the Ancients bury’d at first far out of Cities, in the Highways, Woods, Hills and Mountains, thence says Servius on Æneid. 11. Factum est aut Pyramides fierent, aut ingentes collocarentur Columnæ. They erected either Pyramids or Columns over their Graves. |Memories,| They were also call’d Memories, a Memoria, and Monuments, |Monuments.| a monendo, quia monebant Mentem, because as St. Austin says, Lib. De Cura pro Mortuis, we are by them put in Mind and warn’d to consider our frail Condition, they being external Helps to excite and stir up our inward Thoughts, to have the remembrance of Death before our Eyes, that our deceas’d Brethren may not be out of our Minds, tho’ they are out of our sight. Much the same Etymology of a Monument Varro gives, Lib. 5. De Lingua Latina, and Weever of Funeral-Monuments, p. 9. has collected such another out of a Manuscript in the Cotton Library, entitul’d, The Register of Gray-Friars in London.

Dormitories.

The Christians us’d to call Sepulchres Dormitories or Sleeping Places, where the Bodies of the Faithful rested in their Graves as in their Beds, vide p. 17. The Pagans also gave them the like Synonymous Names, such as Quietorium, Requietorium, &c. |Resting-Places.| Scilicet ubi quiescant condita Corpora. Places of Rest and Quiet for the Dead. |Seats.| They were likewise antiently call’d Seats, as appears by this old Inscription, Hanc Sedem sibi Vivi posuerunt, and that of Virgil in his 6th Æneid.

————Quam Sedibus Ossa quierunt.

How they their Bones in quiet Seats do rest!

See also pag. 24.

Houses.

Sometimes they were call’d Houses, in that there is no House so much and truly our own as our Grave, whence Job rightly express’d himself, Chap. 30. ver. 23. I know thou wilt bring me to Death, and to the House appointed for all Men Living. Likewise Chap. 4. 9. he terms them Houses of Clay, but Isaiah Chap. 14. 18. describes them more elegantly in these Words, All the Kings of the Nations lye in Glory, every one in his own House. Others gave them still more pompous Titles, such as Domus Æterna, Domus Æternitatis, &c. for as Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. Bibl. Histor. relates, The Egyptians accounted the Houses they liv’d in but as Inns, by reason their stay was so short in them, whereas they deem’d their Sepulchres more durable and eternal, and this because they believ’d the Dead were always to abide and continue in them, so that they took more Care of, and were at far greater Charge about them than their Houses: Also that these might be the more lasting and permanent, the Ancients spared no Cost nor Trouble, but with prodigious Labour and Expence rais’d them out of Marble, Stone, Brass or the like. The Æthiopians made some of their Monuments of Glass, as Herodotus, Lib. 3. cap. 6. relates in these Words: Deinde Cippum ei cavum e Vitro, quod apud illos multum est, & facile effoditur, circumdant: In ejus medio Mortuus interlucet, ut ab Hominibus conspici queat, &c. Afterwards they enclose him in a Coffin of Glass, which is plentiful with them and easily dug: In the midst of it the dead Body so shines, that he may be seen of all. Alexander ab Alexandro, Lib. 6. Gen. Dier., cap. 14. says, The Egyptians had three sorts of Sepulchres, one of great Expence, which cost a Talent of Silver, another of 20 Minæ, and a third kind of smaller Cost and Value; but the Æthiopians were more famous for their Monuments, those of the richer Sort being made of Gold, the middle kind of Silver, and the poorer ones of Earth.

Funeral-Ceremonies how and when useful.

But I fear, Sir, you’ll think I have digress’d too much from my Subject of Embalming, yet what I have said, was in order to shew how far Funeral-Rites and Ceremonies are useful and allowable, when accompany’d with this Art, and on the contrary, how vain and ridiculous they are when us’d without it, especially if they do but in the least exceed the Bounds of Modesty and Frugality. What tho’ other Ceremonies be perform’d with the greatest Splendor and Exactness, they can give no other Satisfaction than the Decency of Burial, or performing perhaps the Will of the Dead; for the Body will nevertheless stink, corrupt, and it may be startle the nearest Friend to see it a while after? Then shall his Bones not be known, nor his Ashes be distinguish’d from another Mans, nay even from common Earth, so that the parcimonious Heir may well reflect, how vain and needless it would have been to have bestow’d more than a decent Expence on his Funeral. Nor does it signifie much which way the Body be dissolv’d, in regard it comes to the same End without Embalming, and that such Tombs, how splendid soever, are but in effect Cenotaphs or empty Sepulchres, except that they are full of Stench and Rottenness: |Funeral-Expences insignificant without Embalming.| We must therefore look upon it as the most extravagant Vanity to erect Pyramids, Obelisks, Tombs, &c. for preserving an empty airy Name and meer Shadow, while we neglect to keep any Remains of that noble Workmanship the Body, whereby to distinguish Man from Earth and Dust. That these Practices are not commendable is plainly prov’d in St. Matthew’s Gospel, Chap. 23. 27, 29. where our Saviour describing Hypocrites, compares them to such Tombs and Sepulchres, in these Words, Wo unto you Scribes and Pharisees, Hypocrites, for ye are like unto whited Sepulchres, which indeed appear beautiful without, but within are full of dead Mens Bones and all Uncleanness. That is, the rigid Jews affected plaister’d and whited Sepulchres, in Cadaverous and corrupted Burials, garnishing their Tombs only outwardly, when within they were full of Stench and Rottenness: But we shall endeavour to prove, that of all Funeral-Ceremonies, Embalming is the chief and most useful, without which, all the rest are but vain, expensive and insignificant Customs. |Why the Body is to be taken Care of.| We are not ignorant some may object why the Body should be so much taken Care of, since by Death there is a separation made of the Soul, that more noble Part being fled, while the baser only is left. To this we must assent, that the Body is depriv’d much of its Dignity and Worth by such a Separation, inasmuch as it is but an ignoble Lump in respect of the Soul, yet are we not to neglect and despise it, but rather to esteem it the more for the Souls sake, in that it has once been in a happy State of conjunction with it, and that it shall again come to be reunited therewith. The Soul, says Sandys, p. 105. knowing it self by Divine Instinct to be Immortal, does in a manner desire the Body, her belov’d Companion, may, as far as may be, enjoy the like Felicity with her, giving by lofty Monuments, and the Duties of Funerals, all possible Eternity with her. With this Hen. Salmuth, Comment. in Panciroll. Pars 1. pag. 336. agrees, saying, Consentaneum est Veritati & Observantiæ, imo indubitatum est Sapientibus, quædam nobis cognata esse Semina Immortalitatis; cujus adeo appetentes sumus, ut etiam Sepulturæ prospiciamus, & nolimus Cadaver nostrum male haberi. Humanum Ingenium quod Animæ nostræ vis est, cum se sciat Immortale, optat etiam ut Corpus ipsum quoq; & Comes & Domicilium suum quoad fieri potest eadem Fælicitate perfruatur. It is both agreeable to Truth and Observation, and not to be doubted by Wise Men, that there are in us some innate Seeds of Immortality, which we so desirously seek, as to take Care both of our Sepulture, and that our Carcass be not ill treated. Human Understanding, which is the Force of the Soul, knowing it self Immortal, desires also the Body, which is its Companion and Habitation, may enjoy as much as may be the same Felicity she her self has. |The Soul concern’d at the Usage of the Body.| For tho’ the Body be not sensible, yet the Soul which cannot die, mourns sadly when its Companion is either ill treated or neglected; but on the contrary rejoyces when it is Honour’d and taken Care of. This Lucretius hints at, where he shews how Man, who whilst living, knows what will happen after Death, as that his Body shall corrupt or be devour’d by Birds, Beasts, &c. or burn’d by Fire, commiserates himself for not having been created Immortal, and consequently departs out of this World regretfully, see p. 23. This is also farther confirm’d by Julius Cæsar Scaliger, Lib. 3. Poetices, cap. 20. who says, Altho’ the dead Body neither perceives what Condition it is in, nor is any longer with the Soul, yet Man when living has a Sense of all those things his Body must undergo after his Dissolution. Now if Death were only ceasing to be, act or breath, then were that State most desirable, inasmuch as Man would then only rest from his Labours, and be by this means freed from the Troubles and Afflictions of this Life. Whereas on the contrary to be dissolv’d or to become a Prey to ravenous Beasts, Birds and Fishes, or an Heritage to Serpents and Worms, is ungrateful to our Thoughts, miserable to our Sight, and unpleasant to all our Senses; such a State being not only disagreeable to our Nature, but also dishonouring and debasing of the Noble Image of GOD, pag. 9. and 10. ’Tis this occasions great sadness of Mind to Man whilst living, and makes him die the more regretfully: It grieves him exceedingly to think what a miserable Object of Mortality he is like to prove after Death, how ugly and deform’d, how offensive to his Friends, and only fit for the Conversation of such new born Insects and Reptiles as are bred out of, and live by Stench and Corruption. What a Metathesis is this! that he who perhaps was born of Royal Blood, and kept Company with Kings and Princes, shall now cry out with Job, 17. 14. To Corruption, thou art my Father; To the Worm, thou art my Mother and Sister. Whereas on the contrary, he who is assur’d of being Embalm’d, and having all other Funeral-Rites perform’d to him, closes his Eyes in full satisfaction of lying undisturb’d in his Grave, as in his Bed, and enjoying Eternal Rest. |Therefore the Body is to be taken Care of.| Besides, other Considerations may induce us to take Care of the Body; for would you not think it a strange Disgrace for a Prince to dwell in a Hutt, and his Jewels and other Riches to be laid up in a Sink of Filthiness? Surely such as the Prince is, such ought to be the Palace wherein he dwells, and such as are the Jewels, such ought to be the Cabbinet that contains them. The Soul is the most precious Thing in this World, and accordingly GOD has enclos’d it with a Cover, the Body, the most beautifully compos’d next to it that can be; Shall we despise therefore this Cover, because Death has separated it from the Soul? No, let us rather esteem it the more, and take the more Care to preserve it, inasmuch as it has once been the Casket of that noble Jewel, and is the only Way of representing that Divine Form which GOD Almighty was pleas’d to impress on it. We may perhaps vainly please our selves with having the Picture of our deceas’d Friend, which nevertheless consists but of a few Lights and Shadows, or it may be we have his Statue, which however wants the natural Complection and Air of his Person: ’Tis true Pictures or Statues may preserve in our Minds our Friends Memories, and so in some measure redeem them from the Injuries of Oblivion, yet will they still but very faintly and imperfectly represent that Body, to which Embalming gives a real Presence, and which may at any Time be essay’d by our Senses. Aristotle adds farther, Corpore in Putredinem abeunte, nec Anima amare, nec reminisci potest. That the Soul neither remembers nor loves the Body when Putrify’d; which is agreeable to the Opinion of the Egyptians, |The Egyptians Belief of a dead Body.| who pleasantly conceited, that the Soul only left the Body when it was Corrupt and Putrify’d, as abhorring so loathsome an Habitation; whereas on the contrary, it never forsook it when it was preserv’d uncorrupt and entire. For this reason they, with extraordinary Art and Care, Embalm’d their Dead, that so the Body by the Cleanliness of its Mansion, by its being deliciously perfum’d and dighted with all the Aromatic and Odoriferous Spices and Gums of Arabia, and in a word, by its being dress’d in fine Linnen, might court and incline its best Companion, the Soul, to cohabit with it (Prov. 7. 16, 17.) Methinks so good an Example from Heathens might excite us to take more Care of our inanimate Part. We are apt enough to respect the Outsides of other Things, and set a Value on their Insides accordingly; Why therefore should we not with our utmost Care support our earthly Tabernacle from the fatal Ruins of Death, that it may thereby continue in one State, like the Israelites Cloaths, without Wearing or Corrupting, and be Tenantable at any Time, whenever the Soul shall return to inhabit it again? Now as we are all desirous of Immortality, so ought we likewise to be of Eternity.

The desire of Living is as natural as the necessity of Dying inevitable, and some have spared no means to render themselves Immortal, if Human Nature could possibly have arriv’d at that State, but finding Death inexorable and irresistable, they alter’d their Measures by inventing a thousand ways to perpetuate their Memories after their Dissolution; as by erecting Pyramids, Obelisks and Monuments of surprizing Magnificence, on which they engrav’d Inscriptions capable as they thought to resist Time, and to endure to Eternity. Yet of all Methods us’d to preserve and perpetuate the Memories of the Dead, |Embalming the best way of preserving the Memory of the Dead.| it may justly be said of Embalming, that that Art has ever been most approv’d by the Polite Nations, as being undeniably the most considerable and efficacious Means to answer their Intention. For the utmost Care in erecting Monuments, &c. yields but an obscure and imperfect Idea of the Person deceas’d, whereas by Embalming, that very Person is known to be preserv’d: Besides, if I may use the Words of Sir Thomas Brown in his Hydriotaphia, Who knows the Fate of his Bones, or how often he is to be bury’d? Who has the Oracle of his Ashes, or where they are to be scatter’d? To be dug out of our Graves, have our Skulls made Drinking-Cups, and our Bones turn’d into Pipes or Dice to delight and sport our Enemies, shew Juglers Tricks, or divert Gamesters: To have Drums made of our Skins, to please Children or terrifie in Battel, &c. These are tragical Abominations to dying Persons, the Consideration whereof methinks should occasion us to take more care of our Interment. Now Embalming prevents all these Things, not the common sort, for that is equally terrible to some People, but such as is perform’d without cutting, slashing or Embowelling, which I shall hereafter shew. There are some indeed who object against all kinds of Embalming, and this because they think them contrary to Scripture and the Fate pronounc’d to Man, |Embalming not contrary to the Scriptures.| Gen. 3. 19. but this and all other such like Scruples we shall fully clear, by examining what Man is, that GOD should be so mindful of him (Psalm 8. 4.) and that notwithstanding his Transgression, he should so love him, as to be careful of preserving him both in Life and Death.

Man’s Elogium.

Man the Master-Piece of the Omniscient Architect, is but little inferiour to the Angels themselves, being made after GOD’s own Image; for his Use all other Creatures were made and put in Subjection to him: He alone was endu’d with a Rational and Immortal Soul, a beautiful Symmetry of Body, an Angelic Form, and a Countenance erect to Admire and Worship his Creator. The inquisitive Anatomist can never sufficiently investigate the noble Contrivance of his Organs; the profoundest Naturalist give Reasons for, or the most exquisite Mathematician pretend to imitate so Divine a Mechanism. Here’s a Subject of Contemplation for a Divine, or of a Psalm for the Royal Prophet, to shew how wonderfully Man is form’d and crown’d with Glory and Honour, to live for ever and not see Corruption: |His Transgression| But alass! of how short duration was this happy State? He was no sooner plac’d in Paradise, than, being puff’d up with Pride, he grew disobedient and transgress’d; so that his Happiness was immediately chang’d into a Curse, That all his Days should be but Trouble and Sorrow, and he at length return to the Dust from whence he was taken. Thus the latter part of Adam’s Curse was, that he should die and moulder away, whereas, had he not transgress’d, his Body had probably never been destroy’d, but translated. He would not then have undergon either Death or Corruption, nor would his Body have suffer’d so long a Separation from his Soul; for in that State the Body was no less pure than the Soul, it was every way to be admir’d, honour’d and esteem’d. It was, in a word, nam’d The Temple of GOD, but thro’ Sin Man was curst with Sickness and Infirmities whilst alive, and lastly, with Death, the shamefullest Reproach, thereby to suffer the Corruption of the Grave, and be Food to the vilest Reptiles of the Earth. Now as the Body was once pure as well as the Soul, so is the Soul by Sin contaminated and defil’d as well as the Body, both being made liable to Corrupt and Putrifie thro’ the Curse of Death, and to be like the Beasts of the Field which perish Eternally.

And Redemption.

But GOD, out of his infinite Love and Mercy to Mankind, sent his blessed Son as a Redeemer, to make Atonement for Man’s Original Sin, whereby the Curse of his Transgression was wip’d away, and Victory over Death and the Grave obtain’d. Again, As GOD has appointed as a Blessing, Physicians for curing Diseases, that Man might enjoy a tolerable state of Health, till remov’d from this Life, so has he in Death likewise given them a Knowledge to preserve them Incorruptible, which is the promis’d Blessing, 1 Cor. 15. that tho’ our Flesh be Corruptible, yet shall it put on Incorruption (by Embalming) and tho’ we are Mortal and die, yet shall we become Immortal, and so both Death and Sin be conquer’d by Life Eternal. Now this may as well be understood in a Literal Sense, agreeable to our Subject, as in a Spiritual one; |Embalm’d Bodies Sleep ’till the Resurrection.| for Bodies Embalm’d as aforesaid, seem not to be dead, but only asleep, waiting for the Resurrection. For this Reason the Hebrews call’d their Burying-Places Houses of the Living, and the Christians nam’d theirs Dormitories or Sleeping-Places, p. 17. where Bodies rest in their Tombs as in their Beds. Non Mortua, sed data Somno, says Prudentius. Their Bodies are not dead, but asleep; for Death to Christians is but Sleeping, and Sleeping Rest, out of which they hope and expect to be awak’d at the joyful Day of Resurrection, well knowing it is no more difficult with GOD to raise them from Death than Sleep; so that to them Death is but as it were a mute Interludium to the Resurrection, a Cessation of Labour and Action, and differs from Life only in Motion and Speech: |Death compar’d to Sleep.| For this Reason Death is rightly compar’d to Sleep, as being a Refreshment during the Night of this World, till the Morning of the next. Thus Jesus told the By-Standers, Matth. 9. 24. The Maid is not dead, but sleepeth. And that Lazarus (who was Embalm’d and restor’d to Life again) slept, John 11. 11. which the better to explain he afterwards told them he was dead, ver. 14. It is also written of the Martyr St. Stephen that he fell asleep, Acts 7. 60. See also Dan. 12. 2. and 1 Thess. 4. 13. and this way of speaking was more especially us’d in the Old Testament, as I have already observ’d, p. 36. Prudentius’s Hymn Ad Galli Cantum, p. 30. and that Ante Somnum, p. 46. excellently well compare Death to Sleep, Sleep to Death, and Waking to the Resurrection. Sleep, says Sir Thomas Brown in his Religio Medici, p. 43. is so like Death, that I dare not trust it without my Prayers, and an half Adieu to the World, taking my Farewel in this Colloquy with GOD:

The Night is come, like to the Day,
Depart not Thou, Great GOD, away;
Let not my Sins, black as the Night,
Eclipse the Lustre of thy Light;
Keep still my Horizon, for to me
The Sun makes not the Day but Thee.
Thou, whose Nature cannot sleep,
On my Temples Centry keep;
Guard me ’gainst those watchful Foes,
Whose Eyes are open while mine close.
Let no Dreams my Head infest,
But such as Jacob’s Temples blest:
While I rest my Soul advance,
Make my Sleep a Holy Trance,
That I may, my Rest being wrought,
Awake into some Pious Thought,
And with as active Vigour run
My Course, as does the nimble Sun.
Sleep is Death, O make me try,
By sleeping, what it is to die;
And as gently lay my Head
In my Grave as on my Bed.
Howe’er I rest, Great GOD, let me
Awake again at last to Thee.
And thus assur’d behold I lye
Securely, or to wake or die.
These are my drowsie Days, in vain
I now do wake to sleep again:
O come that Hour when I shall never
Sleep no more, but wake for ever.

This is the Dormitive I take to Bedward, says my Author, I need no better Hypnotic to make me sleep; after which I close mine Eyes in Security, content to take my leave of the Sun, and to sleep ’till the Resurrection.

Now what this Learn’d Author says of Sleep, the same may be said of Embalming; for this Art prevents the Corruption of the Grave, so that the Body will remain entire, and as it were asleep in its Bed, ’till awak’d by the last Trumpet to a joyful Resurrection, where in its Flesh it shall see GOD, Job 19. 26. and become Spiritual and Immortal. Hereby Death has no more Power over us than a long Sleep, which refreshes us from our Labours, and makes us arise in that Everlasting Morning unweary’d and undefil’d to enjoy a perfect State of Bliss for ever. Besides, this Benefit accrues from seeing Bodies thus preserv’d, that Men are thereby put in mind of that most desirable and delectable Mystery of the Resurrection. |Embalming an Emblem of the Resurrection.| So we also that employ our Time and Labour in Embalming, says Gabriel Clauder in Methodo Balsamandi, p. 11. have before our Eyes, as it were in a Looking-Glass, a Præludium and Argument of the Resurrection, a Symbol of our Future Integrity, and Testimony of our Faith of the hoped for Incorruptibility and Everlasting Eternity. The Pagans themselves were not without some Hopes of this nature, as appears from the extraordinary Care they bestow’d on their Sepulchres and Embalmings. Very remarkable is the civiliz’d Sepulture of the antient Inhabitants of Teneriffe, who Embalm’d their Dead with singular Art, and afterwards plac’d them in deep Caves in several Postures, such as standing, lying, sitting, &c. These Burying-Places they look on only as Dormitories, and rarely admit any one without leave to go into them, seeming as tho’ they would not have them disturb’d.

The Inhabitants of a Country call’d Zeilan, as Aria Montanus relates, do not bury their Dead, but Embalm them with various Aromatics, which done, they dress them in fine Cloaths, and afterwards set them on Benches, according to their distinct Families and Quality, whereby they appear as if alive, and any one may there know his Father, Grandfather, Great Grandfather, or any other of his Predecessors or Family to a long extent of Time. Much the same is reported of some of the Chineses, Laplanders, West-Indians, Egyptians and others, of whom we shall give a full account in their proper Places. Now if the Heathens, who either did not believe, or would not own the Resurrection of the Flesh, were so careful in Embalming their Dead, much less are we to neglect it, who wait the Resurrection of our frail Bodies, and expect when they shall become Incorruptible, Spiritual and Immortal, eternally enjoying the most perfect state of Bliss and Happiness: Besides, we Christians ought to esteem Embalming a pious Work, |Acceptable to GOD.| acceptable to GOD, because it frees us from that Corruption which he so much detests, and has so often pronounc’d and threatn’d as his severest Judgment, p. 38, 39. GOD Almighty has many Times permitted Mankind as well as Brutes and Vegetables, so to petrifie without any Human Help or Assistance, as to remain for ever free from Putrefaction or Corruption, and sometimes has effected the same preservation of the Bodies of the Faithful, without any manifest alteration, but only a little attenuation or dryness, and that without any ill Savour. Thus the Bodies of several Martyrs and Holy Men have been found in most Ages, especially those in the Kiovian Cryptæ or Vaults, which Herbinius describes, and looks on as an Instance of GOD’s Love, and Reward of their Piety and Virtues; Why therefore should we think Embalming, or the artificial Preserving of Bodies, either displeasing to GOD or unbecoming a Christian, since we have so many Instances and Examples to the contrary? The Scriptures testifie that GOD’s antient People the Hebrews embalm’d their Dead, and that the Patriarchs Jacob and Joseph were both embalm’d; so also Joseph of Arimathæa and Nicodemus, following the Footsteps of their Ancestors, honour’d the Body of our Saviour with Embalming. This GOD Almighty was pleas’d to permit, because, as David says, He would not suffer his Holy One to see Corruption, Psal. 16. 10. Now as Christ was bury’d to shew he was really dead, so was he embalm’d in order to his Resurrection; and as his Holy Body was no ways defil’d with Original Sin, so also thro’ the special Privilege bestow’d on it by GOD, was it exempt from the Laws of Corruption. Now this is moreover remarkable, that before our Saviour was born for the Redemption of Mankind, lost by Adam’s Transgression, GOD shew’d a more than ordinary Instance of his Love to Man, by the preservation of Holy Enoch and Elijah, both who, had they been bury’d, |Enoch and Elijah neither dy’d nor corrupted.| must of consequence corrupted under that Curse, Gen. 3. 19. wherefore that they might not undergo those Alterations there threatn’d, viz. Death and Corruption, GOD Almighty translated them: These two with our Saviour are the only Instances of a visible Ascention, and who suffer’d no Corruption.

Embalming approv’d by our Saviour.

To these Reasons we may add what Christ himself witnesses, that he was so far from being displeas’d at the Embalming his Body, that he chid those about him, when they were angry at the Womans pouring such precious Nard Ointment on his Head, which, as they alledg’d, might have better been sold for more than Three Hundred Pence (about 10 l. of our Mony) and given to the Poor, Mark 14. 6, 8, 9. Jesus said, let her alone, why trouble ye her? She hath wrought a good Work on me, she is come aforehand to anoint my Body to the Burial. Verily I say unto you, wheresoever this Gospel shall be preach’d throughout the whole World, this also that she hath done shall be spoken of, for a Memorial of her. In a word, this Art of Embalming is sufficiently warranted both by the Old and New Testament, and equally celebrated by Jewish, Christian and Heathen Writers.

Having now done with my Theological Arguments, I shall next proceed to vindicate the Art of Embalming by some Physical and Political Reasons. First then, |Embalming, in a general Sense, very Extensive.| If we take this Art in a general Sense of preserving the Memory of Man, as well as his Body, we shall find it very Extensive and Infinite, since both the Industry and Ingenuity of the Ancients have not only sought after the surest Means of effecting this, but likewise invented and contriv’d whatever else might preserve the Body, transmit its Name to Posterity, and Fame to Eternity. Some have for this end erected Pyramids, Obelisks, Columns, Temples, Statues and a thousand other Things, whereby they imagin’d they might secure their Names from Oblivion; whereas others thought Poems, Epigrams, Epitaphs and such like Writings were the best and securest Monuments. |Writings thought the best Monuments.| Of this Opinion was Horace, who, at the end of his Third Book, thus boasts of his Works:

Exegi Monumentum Ære perennius,
Regaliq; situ Pyramidum altius:
Quod non Imber edax, non Aquilo impotens
Possit diruere, aut innumerabilis
Annorum series, & Fuga Temporum.
Non omnis moriar, multaq; Pars mei
Vitabit Libitinam.——

A Monument, more lasting far than Brass,

I’ve rais’d, which Pyramids shan’t in height surpass:

Nor fretting Showers, nor blustring Winds deface,

Nor flights of Years and Hours, tho’ numberless, shall raze.

I shall not die whilst thus my better Part

Avoids the Grave.——

In like manner Ovid gives an endless date to himself, and his Metamorphosis in these Words:

Jamq; Opus exegi: quod nec Jovis Ira, nec Ignis,

Nec poterit Ferrum, nec edax abolere Vetustas.

Cum volet illa Dies, quæ nil nisi Corporis hujus

Jus habet, incerti Spatium mihi finiat Ævi:

Parte tamen meliore mei super alta perennis

Astra ferar; Nomenq; erit indelibile nostrum.

Quaq; patet domitis Romana Potentia Terris,

Ore legar Populi; perq; omnia secula Fama

(Si quid habent veri Vatum Præsagia) vivam.

And now the Work is finish’d, which Jove’s Rage,

Nor Fire, nor Sword shall hurt, nor eating Age.

Come when it will my Death’s uncertain Hour,
Which only o’er my Body can have Power;
My better Part shall far transcend the Skie,
And my Immortal Name shall never die:
For wheresoe’er the Roman Eagles spread

Their conquering Wings, I shall of all be read;

And if we Prophets truly can Divine,

I, in my deathless Fame, shall ever shine.

Both these Poetical Flourishes may be esteem’d a kind of Embalming their Authors Actions and Names; for as the aforesaid historical Structures preserve and record our Actions, so are our Thoughts and Sayings embalm’d as it were by Writings. |Fame the Goddess of Embalming.| In this respect Fame may not improperly be call’d the Goddess and Patroness of Embalming, and Mercury her chief Minister to proclaim to the World the Heroic Acts of Memorable and Famous Men: Thus all Things intended to preserve a Name, whether Pictures, Statues, Medals, Buildings or Writings, may be comprehended under this general Sense of Embalming; nevertheless, experience teaches us the preservation of a Body by the Balsamic Art is not only the best way of reviving Mens Memories, and bringing their Merits fresh in our Minds, but also the most durable, |Embalming the most durable Thing.| for not only Tombs and Statues have decay’d in a few Years, but also whole Towns and Cities have been ruin’d and demolish’d within the Revolution of an Age, and that so, as hardly to have one Stone left to witness what they have been; whereas Embalm’d Bodies have been found entire after Thousands of Years. Neither is Embalming to be commended only for its Duration, |Useful in Philosophy and Physic.| but likewise for its great Use in Phisiology, Natural Philosophy and Physic, as we have hinted before, p. 2, 3, 4. In that we thereby know how to conserve all sorts of Herbs, Juices, &c. keep all kinds of Flesh and Fish, and preserve all sorts of Plants, rare Exotics, and such like Curiosities.

In Anatomy.

Embalming is likewise particularly useful in Anatomy, inasmuch as it teaches how Bodies may be preserv’d, that the most minute Parts may be Dissected, and such Preparations made as will remain to Posterity, and serve instead of Books, Sculptures or Pictures, by which the Disposition of the Human Fabric may be more accurately distinguish’d, and the Names and Uses of the Parts easier retain’d in our Memories.

In Surgery.

It is also particularly useful to Physicians and Surgeons, First, In that by opening such Bodies, they may presently see the Nature and Cause of Diseases. And, Secondly, by understanding what Fermentation and Putrefaction are, together with the Virtues and Qualities of Embalming-Drugs that prevent and resist them, they may be better able to cure malignant Feavers, Mortifications, &c. See p. 3, 4. for no sooner is there a Separation of the Soul from the Body, but an immediate tendency to Putrefaction follows: The florid colour of the Face vanishes, the Belly swells, the Entrails turn green and fœtid, and the extreme Parts become shrivel’d and contracted; when we may well cry out, Quantum mutatus ab illo! So suddain an Alteration ensues without a previous Balsamation. What obdurate Hearts and pitiless Eyes can then bear such a miserable Object, when Embalming so easily prevents it, by rendring the Body sweet and decorous, retaining still its natural Form, Feature and Shape? Again, if we consider the natural and innate Desire most People have of being bury’d in their own Tombs and Countries, |Necessary for Transporting Bodies.| we shall find there is a necessity of Embalming such Bodies, the better to convey those that die in Foreign Parts to their Native Soil. Thus Jacob and Joseph were transported from Egypt to Canaan, whereas, had their Bodies not been embalm’d, they must necessarily have corrupted in their Journey; but as for the Greeks and Romans, who were not well acquainted with this Art, they were forc’d to burn such Bodies as dy’d abroad, and were contented only to bring home their Ashes, which Ovid seems so very desirous of in the following Verses:

Ossa tamen facito parva referantur in Urna,

Sic Ego non etiam Mortuus, Exul ero.

Let but my Country have my Funeral-Urn,

And after Death, tho’ exil’d, I’ll return.

Now certainly they would have thought it much better to have brought over the whole Body than part of it, had they been but skillful enough to have embalm’d it; for there is no other difference between Incineration and Putrefaction, than length of Time, therefore both are equally to be avoided. Nay, some of the Heathens themselves have judg’d it an Impiety towards the Dead, either to commit them to the Fire, or to Worms and Corruption, therefore they endeavour’d, as much as in them lay, to Embalm and Preserve them thereby from both. Now nothing is more evident, than that those who intend to preserve a Body entire, ought neither to burn nor bury it, but keep it in a proper Repository, contriv’d to resist the Injuries of Time and Weather, and which is neither expos’d nor obnoxious to Putrefaction.

To Conclude, Embalming not only prevents the Plague and Putrefaction, and consequently frees from the Terror and Deformity of Death, page 9, 11, 12. |Secures from the Insults of Animals, &c.| but likewise defends and secures dead Bodies from Insults of Brutes and Insects, by reason of its bitter ungrateful Taste: Yet considering the antient Way of the Egyptians by rowling, and the modern by wrapping up in Cerecloaths, so obscure the Object, and also are so imperfect on several other Accounts; I have endeavour’d to shew a possibility of inventing a Method, how to preserve the whole Compages of the Body for ever without Putrefaction, in such manner, that its Texture and Structure may remain entire, of the same Proportion as before, and of the same Colour and Flexibility, without any visible contraction, diminution or unconformity of the Parts whereby the dead Corps may be handled by the Anatomists without any offensive Smell or fastidious Mador. St. Jerome, in Epitaph. Paul. Eustoch. speaks thus of Paulina a Roman Lady, Quodq; mirum sit nihil Pallor mutaverit Faciem, sed ita Dignitas quædam omnia compleverat, ut putares non mortuam sed dormientem. And what is wonderful, Paleness had not in the least alter’d her Countenance, but Majesty was so preserv’d (by Embalming) in every Feature, that you would not have thought her dead but asleep. Thus to preserve any heroic Prince or great General, any noted Professor of some Science or Faculty, &c. would sure be a finer sight than their Effigies in Wax, and withal be as durable as their Tomb in Marble. I say, if we can arrive at this Perfection, without Exenteration or Incision, so as to preserve a dead Body after the manner aforesaid, it were reasonable to believe it would not only less terrifie all scrupulous Persons, but likewise be of greater Use to the Common Wealth. Yet least I should fail herein, it being an unbeaten Path, I presume thro’ your Conduct and Guidance, that whilst I am endeavouring to find it out, you will neither suffer me to lose my self, nor lead others out of the Way. This is my only fear (well knowing too many Examples of those that in making new Discoveries have Shipwreck’d themselves) and the principal Request of,

SIR,

Your most Obedient

Humble Servant,

Thomas Greenhill.

THE

Art of Embalming.

LETTER II.

To Dr. John Lawson, sometime President of the College of Phisicians, London.

SIR,

As your Knowledge in the Coptic or antient Egyptian Language, in the Arabic and Oriental Tongues, as likewise your extraordinary Skill both in Phisic and Philology, best testifie you to be the fittest Judge of an Art of such Antiquity as Embalming; so your favourable Approbation of my Notions herein, has encourag’d me to endeavour finding out the true Progress and exact Method of practising that Art. In order hereunto I first think it not amiss to give a short Geographical Description of the Kingdom of Egypt, as also to take notice of the Salubrity of its Air and Water, |What to be consider’d as relating to Embalming.| Fertility of its Soil, and Sagacity of its Inhabitants, together with several necessary Remarks on their Religion, Customs, Arts, Diseases and Phisic, nay, whatever else may tend to the right Understanding of this Noble but lost Art.

Tho’ Embalming be the chiefly intended Scope of this Letter, yet considering the Egyptians have been always allow’d the first Inventors of Arts and Sciences, and that this particular manner of Embalming was at first us’d by them only, it may be requisite to consider every particular circumstance of Time and Place, the several Drugs, Plants, Minerals and other Advantages which accru’d to them beyond other Nations, and likewise to inquire into the Reasons which induc’d them to study this Art, as also by what means and after what manner they came to find it out.

This indeed may seem to some a Digression from our Subject, yet the Consequence of it will not prove a little advantageous to the Reader, besides, like the Interlude of a Tragedy, may somewhat divert the Melancholiness of our Discourse about the Dead. But before I proceed to particulars, I shall speak somewhat of Egypt in general, |Egypt, how scituate and bounded.| which the antient Geographers plac’d partly in Africa and partly in Asia, making the River Nile the Boundary between those two great parts of the World; but Egypt, according to the most common receiv’d Opinion, is at present held to be all scituate in Africa, and bounded on the East by Idumæa, and the Arabian Gulph or Red Sea, on the West by the Desarts of Barca, Lybia and Numidia, on the North by the Egyptian Sea, being part of the Mediterranean, and on the South by Nubia, the last City of Egypt, that way being Assuan. |Its Denomination.| This Country, says Heylin in his Cosmography, p. 841. has had several Names given it by prophane Authors, as, First, Aeria, from the Serenity of its Air, which is seldom Cloudy. Secondly, Potamia, from the propinquity of the Sea, which washes two sides of it. Thirdly, Ogygia, from Ogyges, a suppos’d King thereof. Fourthly, Melampodus, from the black colour of its Soil. Fifthly, Osiria, from the God Osiris, here in high esteem. Sixthly, and lastly, it was call’d Ægyptus, which in the end prevail’d over all the rest, either from Ægyptus Brother of Danaus, once King hereof (in the Stories of this Nation better known by the Name of Rameses) or else from Ægyptus, the old Name of the River Nile, whose annual overflowings bringing Soil and Rubbish from the higher Countries, gave occasion to some to believe it rais’d into firm Land, and gain’d out of the Sea, who therefore call’d it Nili Donum, the Gift of Nile; yet some there are who would have it call’d Ægyptus, from Aiguphtus, deriv’d from Aicoptus, which signifies the Land or Country of Coptus, that being suppos’d to have been antiently its chief City, built by Coptus, whose Genealogy and Descent is thus describ’d by Father Vansleb in his Relation of Egypt, p. 3. Cham, says he, one of the three Sons of Noah, had four Male Children, Cus, Misraim, Fut and Canaan; Cus was Father of the Abyssins, Misraim of the Copties and Nubians, Fut of the Africans, and Canaan of the Syrians and their Neighbours. Misraim after the Deluge, as Macrizi an Arabian Historian says, pitch’d upon Egypt, made there his Abode, and left that and the Country, as far as the farthest Part of Africa, to his Posterity: He had likewise four Sons, Ischemun, Atrib, Sà and Coptus, among whom he equally divided the Land of Egypt. Coptus had all that Tract of Land from Assuan or Isvan to the City of Coptus; Ischemun all the Country from that City to Menuf or Memphis, Atrib had the heart and middle of Egypt; now call’d Delta; and Sà all the Continent, from the Province of Beheire as far as Barbary: They all built Cities in their several Dominions, calling them after their own Names. After the decease of their Father, the four Brothers were at variance about the Soveraignty, neither of them caring to endure a Partner; at length they resolv’d to end their Controversy by Battel, which was to give the chief Command to the Victor. |Govern’d by Coptus.| Coptus the youngest overcame the rest, and was consequently acknowledg’d chief Lord by all. He chose the City of Menuf or Memphis, where his Father liv’d, for his Residence: From this first King all the Race of the Egyptians have been since call’d Copties: From him likewise the Greeks gave the Name of Αἰγύπτος to the Land of Egypt, by changing K. into G. which was allowable not only in that Language, but also in the Arabian. The Moors and Copties, natural Inhabitants of Egypt, now call it Massr, from Misraim, eldest Son of Cham, and Gran-Child of Noah, who first laid the Foundation of that Kingdom after the Deluge: From this Misraim the Turks have also nam’d Egypt Missir, which is very near the Hebrew Misraim; and the Jews to this Day call it Eretz Misraim, the Country of Misraim. This may suffice as to its Denominations and Etimology.

Its Extent.

Nubiensis Geographia makes it to extend in length from Assuan to the Mediterranean, 25 Days Journey, which is about 655 English Miles, and in breadth 8 Days Journey or 200 Miles; but Sandys and Vansleb agree ’tis from North to South only 560 Miles, the latter alledging it scarce possible to declare its length precisely, by reason they are not wont in that Country to measure by Miles or Leagues, but by Camels Journeys only. As to its breadth, Leo Africanus says, p. 296, it is from East to West 50 Miles, being narrow towards the South, but broader to the North towards the Mediterranean. Sandys likewise, p. 72. says, That by reason of its being so contracted among barren Mountains, it is in many Places hardly 4, in few above 8 Miles broad, till not far above Cairo it begins by degrees to enlarge it self, and so continues even to the Sea, being between Rosetta and Damiata, which stand on the West and East-Confines of that which is overflow’d by the natural Course of the River, 140 Miles, and from Rosetta to Alexandria 30.

Antient and modern Division.

Concerning the Division of this Country, the Ancients have taken occasion to divide it first into high and low, and then into high, middle and low; the higher they call’d Thebais, from a Place call’d Thebes, at present Saida; the middle they nam’d Septanomos, from the seven Nomi, Provostships or Governments it contain’d, at present Bechira or Demesor; the lower and more particular Egypt they call’d Delta, from its likeness to the Figure of the Greek Letter Δ. Egypt, according to Sandys, p. 85. is now divided into three Parts or Provinces; that which lies South of Cairo is call’d Sahid, that between Cairo, Rosetta and Alexandria, Errif, that between Cairo, Damiata and Tenese, Maremnia, Bechiria: The Pharaohs and Egyptian Nobility resided in Saida, the Ptolomies in Errif, and the Romans and Greeks along the Sea-Coasts.

The River Nile.

I must now proceed to speak of the River Nile, which crossing great part of Æthiopia, and then entring Egypt, runs the whole length of that Kingdom, and after dividing and spreading it self into many Branches, ends in the Mediterranean Sea. This River was thought by the Ancients not to have its equal, and is still reputed one of the most considerable of the World, having somewhat wonderful and peculiar to it self, whether one considers its Source or Effects. To this River Egypt ows its Fertility, and its Inhabitants the greatest of Felicities, their Health and Fortunes, yet neither could their rich Princes or wise Priests ever discover its Source or Origin. ’Tis this has baffl’d the greatest Philosophers, and withstood the Attempts of all their Kings, Roman Emperors, Sultans and other Potentates, who, notwithstanding they endeavour’d it with vast Expenses, always prov’d unsuccessful: Thus Sesostris, Ptolemy and Cyrus sought for it in vain; Alexander the Great consulted the Oracle of Jupiter Ammon in order to find it out, and Cambyses, as Strabo witnesses, spent a whole Year to the same purpose, yet both were disappointed: Julius Cæsar also, if we may believe Lucan, said, He would have given over his pursuit of the Civil War, could he but have been sure to find out this Secret, yet has its Spring-Head remain’d undiscover’d till of late Years, when it was happily pitch’d upon by the Portugueses, which makes me of the Opinion of Le Bruyn, That no Persons are more capable of making these Searches and Discoveries than the Roman Missionaries; for on one hand they make it their Duty and perpetual Employment to go about everywhere gaining Proselites, and subjecting them to the See of Rome, and on the other, under pretence of Devotion, and by virtue of their poor and simple Habit, may easily penetrate the most remote Countries, inaccessible to other Travellers by reason of the Dangers that are to be met with. Now ’tis certain almost all those Missionaries, especially the Jesuites, are most capable of making these Searches, by reason of their insinuating and cunning Ways, so that making it their Business, as they commonly do, they must be most likely to succeed therein; ’tis therefore to their Care and Pains we are indebted for two considerable Discoveries, of the Source and Rise of this River; the first made by Peter Pais, and the second by Father Telles a Jesuit, which last being the shorter Account, yet no less Correct, I shall here insert it as he has given it us in his History of Æthiopia, printed at Lisbon.

The Rise and Course of the River Nile.

In the Kingdom of Gojam, about 12 Degrees from the Equinoctial towards the West, and in the Province of Sacahala, inhabited by the Agaus, in a Field of no great extent, incompass’d by many high Mountains, is a small Lake, over which one may cast a Stone, full of Bushes and low Trees, whereof the Roots are so thick and intangl’d, that in Summer one may pass over them dry shod. In the middle of this Lake are two great and deep Fountains very near each other, whence issues out a clear Water that runs under these Bushes and Shrubs, in two several Channels. Towards the East, and about the distance of a Musket-Shot, they turn to the North. About half a Mile from thence there appears a great deal of Water, and a considerable River, into which run many other Streams. About 15 Miles farther it receives another larger Water call’d Gema, which looses then its Name. A little farther, turning towards the East, it receives two other considerable Streams call’d Kelti and Branti: Near this Place is the first fall of the River; not much farther running towards the East, it enters the Lake of the Abyssins, nam’d Bahr Dembea, or the Sea of Dembea. When it has pass’d through this Lake, without mingling with its Waters, it receives many other great Rivers, and chiefly the River Tekeze near Egypt. So soon as Nile is out of the Lake Dembea, it turns to the South-East, leaving on the left the Kingdoms of Beg-amidr, Amhara and Voleca; afterwards running towards the South, it has on the South-East the Kingdom of Sauva, and then turning again to East-North-East, has on the South, Ganz, Gafata and Bizamo, passing through the Countries of Gonga and Gafre; a little farther it passes by Fascalo, then enters the Country of Funch or Nubia, whence it runs into Egypt, as Father Telles affirms. But how it is there distributed and divided, I shall shew by and by, after I have mention’d two of its Principal Cataracts or Cascades of a surprizing Nature.

Its Cataracts.

One of these is at Ilack, in Numidia, and the other above Siene in Egypt, being 12 Days Journey from each other. Ptolomy calls the most Southern, the Great Cataract, and the other, which he places about Siene, now Assuan, the Lesser. This falls about 50 foot, but the other three times as high, which last rouling off the Rocks into a vast Abyss, the Waters, says Sandys, p. 73. make such a roaring Noise, that a Colony, planted there by the Persians, were made almost Deaf with it, and glad to abandon their Habitations, tho’ otherwise plentifully provided with all Necessaries of Life. The adjoyning People nevertheless are of that incredible boldness, that daring to commit themselves in little Boats (capable of holding only two, whereof the one Steers and the other Rows) unto the raging Current, and impetuous Eddies, have been seen to pass the Streights of the Rocks by little Channels, and at length to rush down with the Stream, to the amazement of all Beholders, who giving them up for lost, beheld them a while after as if shot out of an Engin, far from the place of their Fall, rowing safely in the asswaged Waters; but Danet will not allow the Noise made by the Cataracts, renders the neighbouring Inhabitants Deaf, tho’ the same may be heard 3 Days Journey off, and the Waters which rush down appear like Smoak, being forc’d with so great a violence, that they form a kind of Arch, and leave so great a space between, that a Man may pass it without being wet: There are also Seats cut under the Rocks, where Travellers may rest themselves.

The other Cascade, as Sandys, p. 73. tells us, is a little above the place where once stood the City Elephantis: There two pointed Rocks nam’d Crophi and Mophi, or the Veins of Nilus, lift up their eminent Heads, making the lesser Cataract by falling down with a furious Cascade into the upper Egypt; then running from South to North very leisurely, it divides its self into two navigable Branches. That towards the East runs into the Midland Sea near Damiata, heretofore Pelusium, while the other inclining to the West, and formerly call’d Canopus, falls into the self same Sea a little below Rosetta, making, of the richest Portion of the Land of Egypt, a triangular Island, call’d Delta, in that being thus inclos’d between these two Branches and the Sea, it bears the form of that Letter. Two other Branches there are which run between these, but poor in Water, besides divers Channels cut by the Labour of Man, for better Conveyance during the Time of Inundation.

Its Ostiaries or Mouths.

Herodotus and Strabo reckon up seven Mouths of the Nile, but Egypt has been so much chang’d since their Time, that there is hardly any appearance or remembrance of the seven Cities they mention. Ptolemy, in his Geography, expresly gives the names of nine; but surely most of them must have been stop’d up by the Sands, since at present there are but three or four at most, as is affirm’d by William Arch-Bishop of Tyre, in his IX. Book, De Bell. Sac. cap. 33. and by Le Bruyn in his Voyage to the Levant, p. 161. who went on purpose to make such Discoveries. But this is however remarkable, that the fresh Waters of the Nile, keeping themselves united in a Body, and falling into the salt Water or Sea, change the Colour of the Mediterranean farther than any part thereof can be seen from the Shore. |Its Inundation.| Yet amongst all the Misteries of Nature, none is more wonderful than the Overflowing of this River, nor any Thing more Beneficial; since to this alone the Inhabitants owe not only their Riches but their Health, the most malignant Diseases immediately ceasing at the Approach of it, and Famine and Dearth are as quickly expell’d. It brings a Mirth and Joy to those People, and of a meer Desart it was before, for such is Egypt unwater’d by the Nile, makes that Country the most fruitful of any in the habitable World.

Now the Earth, which had been so long scorch’d by the violent heat of the Sun, is plentifully refresh’d with abundant Waters, and the very Cattel seem to rejoyce at the approaching verdant Season: Boats are row’d where not long before Men trod, and the Waters fill up the dusty Channels and long empty’d Cisterns, covering in many Places the whole superficies of the Land, making it appear as a troubl’d Lake. Nor is this an unpleasant sight to the Natives, who think the less they see of their Country, the more their Comfort will be. During this Inundation they keep their Beasts and Cattel on the tops of such little Hills, as either the Providence of Nature, or Industry of Man has prepar’d, where they abide, waiting patiently for the decrease of the Waters. On these Hills also stand most of their Towns and Villages, appearing, in the time of the Flood; like so many Islands, the People in the mean Time holding Commerce and continual Traffick, by intercourse of Boats and Shallops, in which they transport their marketable Commodities from one Place to another.

Time of its Increase.

This Increase of Waters begins about the 16th or 17th of June, when the Nile swells above its Banks for the space of 40 Days, and in as many more gathers its Waters again to their proper Bounds; so that its greatest height is about the end of July, and decrease about the beginning of September. If it begins sooner or later, the People give Judgment whether there will be more or less Water, and consequently are advertis’d to the end they may take Order for what they have to do. The Increase is known by certain Pillars in their Towns, and particularly in the Castle of Roude, which stands in a little Isle opposite to old Cairo, where the Bassa resides, during the Solemnity of opening the Khalis or Channel, which passes thro’ and fills the Cisterns of Grand Cairo. It is also known in the Fields by Asps, Tortoises, Crawfish, Crocodiles, &c. who remove their Eggs or Young from the Banks of the Nile, immediately before the Inundation, and lay them up where they may be preserv’d.

Its Effects.

Now answerable to the Increase of this River is the Plenty or Scarcity of the succeeding Year. Heylin in his Cosmography writes, If it flow not to the height of 15 Cubits, then the Earth will be deficient in her Abundance or Increase for want of Moisture; and if it surmount the superficies of the Earth, more than 17 Cubits, then, like a drunken Man, it cannot produce its natural Operation, having its Stomach cloy’d and surcharg’d as it were with too much Liquor; but if a moderate flowing happen, then can no Country boast of a like Fertility, the Flood bringing with it both Earth and Water into a sandy and thirsty Soil, which as well manures as moistens it with the Fat and pregnant Slime it leaves behind, and, as I said before, produces both Riches and Health; for the Plague, which here oftentimes miserably rages, upon the first Day of the Flood instantly ceases, insomuch, that whereas 500 had died at Cairo the Day before, on the Day following there dies not one Man. But if it at any Time happens that the River does not thus overflow the Country, then is it commonly the fore-runner of a following Dearth. Thus, when this River flows but to 16 Degrees, they fear a Famine, but when it comes to 23, ’tis a sign of a good Year, whereas when ’tis too high the Inundation is dangerous. Thevenot says, If it rises but to 16 Foot, a Famine unavoidably follows for want of Water; and if it swells to 24, there will be a Dearth, because the Seed-Time must be lost. There are besides many other rare Properties belonging to this River, which to relate would make my Digression too long, and my intent was only to mention such Things as chiefly tend to a Natural History, among which, those curious Observations made by Father Vansleb are most to my purpose, which therefore I shall insert as follows:

Remarkable Observations on the Nile.

This is remarkable of Nile, says my Author, That it begins to increase and decrease on a certain Day, and that when it first increases, it grows green and afterwards appears red: The Day on which it begins to increase is Yearly the 12th of June, according to the Copties Account, or the 17th according to Ours, when the Natives observe the Feast of St. Michael the Arch-Angel, on which Feast the Drops begin to fall: Now these Drops, according to the Opinion of the Inhabitants, are Tokens of the Mercies and Blessings of GOD. They believe GOD sends the Arch-Angel, St. Michael, on that Day to cause the River to be Fruitful; this is the common sentiment the People have, but the Learned say, these Drops are a kind of Dew, which falls towards the last quarter of the Night, near the Morning, and causes the River to be Fertile, Purifies the Air from all Infection of Camsin, and gives Strength and Virtue to whatever it falls upon.

Cause of its Fertility.

These Drops are doubtless the sole Cause of the Fertility of the Nile; for as soon as the Dew is fallen, the Waters begin to corrupt and turn of a greenish Colour: This Colour increases more and more till the River appears as a Lake cover’d all over with Moss; this Colour is to be seen not only in its great Channel, but also in all the Bounds and Branches that come from it, the Cisterns only preserving their Water pure; some Years this green Colour continues about 20 Days, and sometimes longer, but never above 40. The Egyptians call this Time il chadraviat, for then they suffer much, the Water being corrupt and unwholesome, and because good Water is very scarce. These Drops or Dew purifie the Air, for so soon as ever they begin to fall, the Plague ceases to be mortal, none die of it; the Air becomes wholesome, all Diseases are disarm’d, and if any Person happens to be sick of it, he shall be sure not to die. This Dew gives Life to every Thing, and when it falls on the Wheat, causes it to continue many Years without Corruption or Worms, nay makes it far more Nourishing than any Corn on which it has never come. For this Reason the Natives never house the Grand Signiors Corn till this Dew be fallen, to the end it may keep the longer free from Worms.

Its Increase.

The Increase of this River proceeds from several Causes; the first and chiefest of which, is the Fermentation caused therein by this Dew, which falls precisely at the Time before-mention’d. The continual Rains of Æthiopia, that come in July, August and September, which is the Winter Quarter of this Country, together with the great Torrents of Water that rush down from the Mountains, into the Rivers that flow into the Nile, may be look’d on as another Cause of its Increase; for I cannot conceive the Fermentation can last 100 Days, and singly cause it to increase so much as it is wont. The third Cause are the Westerly Winds call’d Maestrals, and by the Egyptians Maltem, which begin about 12 Days before the Dew comes, and continue about four Months without Cessation; they blow directly into the Nile, and hinder the fresh Water from coming out, so that it returns back, which causes the River to swell. So soon as the green Colour is gone, the River begins to turn red and very muddy; ’tis then no doubt the Fermentation is past, and the Waters of Æthiopia are arriv’d in Egypt, which are of that Colour, by reason of the red Earth the furious Torrents from the Mountains carry along with them; for ’tis not probable the Land of Egypt, which is very black, should give that Tincture. In the Year 1673, at the beginning of July, the Water began to turn red, which continu’d to the end of December, the Time the River ordinarily returns to its usual bigness. The Egyptians have an Art to make this muddy Water as clear as Cristal; so soon as the Water-Bearers have fill’d their Vessels, they rub them in the inside with a Paste made of pounded Almonds, which in a short Time causes the Water to become very clear. In such Places where this Paste is not to be had, they use instead of it the Kernels of Apricocks, pounded after the same manner, and some say the Flower of little Beans will have the same Effect.

Operation of its Waters.

The Waters of this River have several Operations, for, First, They bring a Loosness on new Comers, in case the Parties drink them at their first arrival, and it continues about eight Days. Secondly, They cause an Itching in the Skin, which troubles those that drink them when the River increases: This Itch is very small, appearing first about the Arms, then on the Stomach, and afterwards spreading all over the Body, which causes grievous Pain. This Itch comes not only on such as have drunk of the River, but such as drink out of the Cisterns fill’d with River-Water; it lasts about six Weeks. Thirdly, About the Months of June, July, August and September it turns into Sweat, but is not so in any other Time of the Year. Fourthly, When this Water covers the Earth, it fattens the Land with the Slime it leaves behind. Monsieur Thevenot is mistaken in his Travels into the Levant, where he says, This Slime makes the Ground so fat, that if Sand were not mingl’d with it, it would Rot and Choak whatever is put into it; and that in Egypt they take as much Pains to carry Sand upon their Land, as we do to lay Dung. This is not generally so, for they never use Sand but for Melons, Cucumbers, and such like Fruits, which grow best in sandy Grounds; they never use it for other Fruits and Grains. Thus far Vansleb.

Their Virtues and Goodness.

Sandys, speaking in Commendation of these Waters, says, They procure liberal Urine, curing Pains in the Kidnies, and are a most sovereign Remedy against the Hypocondriacus Affectus, or Wind-Melancholy. They are not unpleasantly cold, but of all others the most sweet and wholsome, by reason of their being well concocted by the Sun, which at all Times is, in some part or other, directly over them, and by the length of their Course, running from South to North, besides Ambages above 41 Degrees, so that from this River there ascend no Vapours, the Humour being rarifi’d by so long a Progress, which tho’ exhal’d, assumes no visible Body, but undistinguishably mixes with the pure Air, agreeing with the same in tenuity. Thevenot speaks much to the same purpose in his Travels to the Levant, fol. 245. where he says, This Water is so wholsome, it never does any harm, tho’ drank to never so great a degree, by reason it comes a great way over Land, to wit, from Æthiopia, so that in so long a Course, thro’ so hot a Country, the Sun has Time to correct and purifie it from all Crudities, and indeed it is sweated out as fast as one drinks it.

Used instead of Drink.

They have no other Water to drink in Egypt, therefore most of their Cities, Towns and Villages stand on the Borders of this River; there are also many Canals and deep Ponds which have been caus’d to be cut at convenient Distances, by the Care and Magnificence of their Kings, for the Refreshment and Use of the People, who indeed need no other Drink. The Waters of this River are of such excellent Taste and Virtue, that when Pescennius Niger heard his Souldiers murmur for want of Wine, he thus reply’d, What! crave ye Wine and yet have Nile to drink of? The first Kings of Egypt made such account of them, that they almost drank nothing else; and when Ptolomy Philadelphus marry’d his Daughter Berenice to Antiochus Theos, King of Assyria, he gave orders that from Time to Time the Waters of Nile should be carry’d her, that she might drink no other Liquor. And indeed all Authors agree these Waters are sweet, healthful and nourishing, and that they keep a long Time without corrupting, for being left to settle but a small Season, they become clean, clear, and so sweet and pleasant, that they excel all others for smoothness and flavour. Gabriel Sionata in his Tract De Moribus Orientalium, p. 27. observes, That the Waters of Nile, being only kept in Pans three Days, and during that Time expos’d to the heat of the Sun, turn to a pure white Salt; so that the Land of Egypt has an inexhaustible supply of that which is so needful for the Life of Man, and that at small Expence. Moreover, whatever is here valuable proceeds from the Munificence of this River, whose Annual overflow is the only Cause of that wonderful Fertility of the Soil of this Country, which is so great that it is rather to be admir’d than describ’d.

Fertility of Egypt.

In Times past it was reputed the Granary of the whole World, insomuch, that it was not thought possible for the Roman Empire to subsist without its affluence. Also, after Selimus Emperor of the Turks had conquer’d this Country, he was heard to say, That now he had taken a Farm would plentifully feed his Jemoglans. Monsieur Thevenot says, Egypt may well be stil’d an Earthly Paradise; for so great is its increase, that in many Places they reap two considerable Crops a Year; Hay they mow four Times, and as for Pease, Beans, and other Garden-Ware, those grow spontaneously all the Year round. All kinds of Fruit are exceeding plentiful, Grapes only excepted, which it may be Nature keeps back as thinking the Natives of Egypt can want no Wine, since they have so good Water. In a Word, Lucan thus characterizes this Country:

Terra suis contenta Bonis, non indiga Mercis

Aut Jovis, in Solo tanta est fiducia Nilo.

A Land that needs nor Trade nor Rain, a Soil

Pleas’d in it self as confident in Nile.

The Red Sea.

Next we shall speak of the Red Sea, as having been so very Famous, both for the miraculous Passage of the Israelites as upon dry Land, and the drowning of Pharaoh Cenchres, and all his Followers, as likewise for that thro’ it the Spices of India and Arabia were first brought to Alexandria, and thence dispers’d by the Venetians throughout all Europe, Africa and America, as Heylin, p. 852. testifies. The Turks call this Sea the Gulf of Mecca, and the Ancients nam’d it the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea, the reason of which last, see in Sir Thomas Brown’s Vulgar Errors, p. 261 and 262. who also tells us several Princes have attempted to cut thro’ the Isthmus, or narrow Tract of Land, that parts the Arabian and Mediterranean Seas, but whose intent was not immediately to unite those Waters, but to make a Navigable Channel betwixt the former and the Nile, the Marks whereof remain to this Day. This was first attempted by Sesostris King of Egypt, and afterwards by Darius King of Persia, but, for fear of drowning the Country, at length relinquish’d by them both; yet the same Thing was long after re-attempted, and in some measure effected by Ptolomy Philadelphus. Now the Grand Signior, who is Lord of all this Country, conveys his Gallies into the Red Sea by the Nile; for bringing them down to Grand Cairo, they are there taken to pieces, carry’d upon Camels Backs, and afterwards put together again at Sues, his Port and Naval Station for that Sea, whereby he in effect puts the Design of Cleopatra in execution, who after the Battle at Actium, in a different manner, would have convey’d her Gallies into the Red Sea. Here, as the same Author affirms, Coral grows in great abundance.

The Lake of Mœris.

As concerning the Lakes of Egypt, that of King Mœris is not only the most admirable, but likewise the largest of all, denominated after his own Name, as is testify’d by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus and Pliny; a Work the most useful and wonderful, says Greaves in his Pyramidographia, p. 11. if rightly consider’d, that ever was attempted by Man. In the midst of this Lake that King erected two Pyramids, one in Memory of himself, and the other of his Wife, each being 600 Feet in height. The Description of both these and of this Lake we have in Herodotus; the latter we find also in Strabo, but no where so fully as in Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. therefore I shall relate his Words: Ten Schænes (600 Furlongs, tho’ Strabo and Artemidorus before him observe a difference of Schænes in Egypt) above the City Memphis, Mœris dug a Lake of admirable Use, the Greatness of which is incredible, the Circumference of it being said to be 3600 Furlongs, and the Depth in many Places 50 Fathom (200 Cubits or 300 Feet.) Now who that shall seriously consider the vastness of this Work, can forbear asking how many Myriads of Men were employ’d on it, and in how many Years they accomplish’d it? The common Benefit of this Undertaking to those that inhabit Egypt, as also the Wisdom of its Royal Contriver, no Man can sufficiently admire; for since the increase of Nile is not always the same, and that the Country is ever made more Fertile by its moderate Rise, this King contriv’d a Lake to receive the superfluity of the Water, that neither the greatness of the Inundation unseasonably drowning the Country, might occasion Marshes or Lakes, nor the Rivers flowing less than required, corrupt the Fruits for want of Water. This Prince therefore caus’d a Ditch to be cut from the River Nile to this Lake, 80 Furlongs long and 300 Feet broad, by which, sometimes receiving in, and sometimes letting out the Water, he exhibited a seasonable quantity thereof to the Husbandmen, the mouth of this Ditch being sometimes open’d and sometimes shut, yet both not without much Art and great Expence, for he that would either open the Sluces or shut them, was under a necessity of expending at least 50 Talents. This Lake, thus benefiting the Egyptians, has continu’d even to our Times, and from its Author is at this Day call’d, The Lake of Mœris. He left a dry place in the midst, on which he built a Sepulcher and two Pyramids, each a Furlong high; one of these he made for himself, and the other for his Wife, placing on each a Marble Statue sitting on a Throne, imagining that by these Works he should transmit to Posterity an indelible Remembrance of his Worth. The Revenue arising from the Fish of this Lake he gave to his Wife for her Unguents and other Ornaments, which is said to have been not less worth to her than a Talent a Day; for according to common report there are 22 sorts of Fish in it, which are taken in such huge quantities, that those who are perpetually employ’d in salting them, of which there is a very large number, can hardly dispatch the Work. Thus far Diodorus Siculus, whose Description of this Lake, as it is much fuller than that of Herodotus, so Herodotus, Lib. 2. has this memorable Observation which Diodorus omitted. He says this Lake was made by Hand, as is apparent, because almost in the midst of it there stand two Pyramids, 50 Fathoms above Water and as many under: On each of these there is a Colossus of Stone, sitting on a Throne; so that by this means, these Pyramids must in all be 100 Fathoms high. Strabo likewise, Lib. 17. says, This Lake is wonderful, being like a Sea both for largeness and Colour.

The Dead Sea or Lake Asphaltites.

But now I am speaking of Seas and Lakes I will mention one more, which tho’ not in Egypt but in Palestine, is not yet above 2 Italian Miles off Damiata, as Le Bruyn, p. 138. assures us. This Lake is very beneficial as well to the Holy Land, in that it plentifully furnishes that Country with Salt, as to Egypt, by reason of its large store of Bituminous Matter, of great use in Embalming: By some it is call’d Mare Mortuum, and by others the Lake Asphaltites. The Name of this Sea is suppos’d to have been given it from its largeness and saltness, being 70 Miles long and 16 broad, and so extream salt, that its Water burns like Fire when tasted, and boils up weighty Bodies, insomuch that whatever living Creature is thrown into it, sinks not easily. It is call’d the Dead Sea, perhaps from its heavy Waters hardly to be mov’d by the Winds, or else because it has no visible efflux into the Ocean, nor is at all increas’d by the River Jordan, and many other Waters that flow into it, or Thirdly, In that no living Creature can breath in it, but is on the contrary suffocated by its Bituminous Steams, the great abundance whereof also occasions it to be call’d Lacus Asphaltites. Now of this Asphaltum or Bitumen there are several Camel-Loads taken out of it Dayly, as Thevenot assures us, which raise a very great Revenue. Diodorus Siculus moreover tells us, there rise such large pieces of Bitumen out of the midst this Lake, as are 2 or 300 Feet square; the greater sort the Inhabitants term Bulls, and the lesser Calves, which, swimming on the surface of the Water, appear at a distance like so many Islands. The Time of the Lakes throwing up this Bitumen, which is Yearly, may be perceiv’d above 20 Days before it comes; for everywhere round, for many Furlongs, a Steam arises with great stench, which changes the natural Colour of all Gold, Silver or Brass near it, till it be again exhal’d; and inasmuch as all adjoyning Parts are thus corrupted with the heat and stench of this Lake, the Inhabitants are commonly infected with Diseases, and their Lives thereby shortn’d. This was once a fruitful Valley, compar’d for delightfulness with Paradise, and call’d Pentapolis from its five Cities; but which being destroy’d by Fire from Heaven, it was thereupon converted into this filthy Lake and barren Desolation which surrounds it, a fearful Monument of Divine Wrath, for the Wickedness of Sodom and Gomorrha, two of these five Cities, from the former of which it is also call’d the Lake of Sodom. But I make mention of this Lake chiefly for the sake of its Asphaltum, so much us’d in the Embalmings of the Egyptians, and not that its stench can any ways incommode or prove unhealthful to Egypt; for that Country has neither Seas Lakes nor Rivers less prejudicial or more beneficial than the Nile, a River sufficient of it self to water the Country, fertilize its Soil, and thereby render its Inhabitants both chearful and healthy.

Climate of Egypt.

Another Thing to be consider’d, as very useful in the Natural History of Embalming, is the Climate of Egypt, whether hot or cold, dry or moist, or compriz’d under other general Heads, such as those of the Heavens, Air, Water, Earth, Winds, Seasons, &c. which Qualities, as they are in great measure occasion’d by the Nile, so are they also best explain’d by setting forth those of that River, with their Effects; for Egypt by reason of its Southerly Situation is very hot, and during the whole Summer almost insupportable, which being farther increas’d by the reflexion of the Sun on its sandy Soil, renders the Air so exceedingly warm that one can hardly breath in it, which is indeed one of the greatest Inconveniencies Egypt lies under. This heat unavoidably dries up all the Rivers for near six Months together, so that the People must of necessity die with Famine, did not the Nile overflow and fill up their empty Channels, thereby relieving them, thirsty as their Soil. Now the Property of this River is the more remarkable, in that it differs from those of all others, which are only full in Winter; whereas, on the contrary, this overflows in Summer, when there is most occasion for it, as if purposely design’d by Providence to save a famish’d and scorch’d Country. Moreover this is worth taking notice of, that the Soil of Egypt being naturally Sandy and Steril, and withal very dry and scorch’d, is by means of the overflowing of Nile sufficiently water’d, and by the fat Mud it leaves behind made very Fertile and fit for Tillage.

The Air very hot.

The Air also of this Country, especially about Cairo, and farther towards the South, because so near the Line, is extream hot, for there, says Ogilby in his Description of Egypt, p. 115. the Sun casts its Beams perpendicularly from Cancer, during which Time of violent Heat the People are wont to dwell in Caverns; nay in Cairo, in the midst of every House, there are Wells with Water in them, which not only cool the Mansions but refresh their Inhabitants: They have likewise contriv’d large Pipes or Funnels in the midst of their Houses, which standing right up into the Air, with broad Mouths like Bells, and lying open to the North, receive the cool Air, which is thereby sent down into the lowermost Rooms. For shade also in the Streets, every Dwelling has a broad Penthouse; and for further refreshment the Inhabitants use Bathing, having curious Bagnio’s of fresh and clear Water from the River Nile, without any mixture either of Herbs or medicinal Ingredients.

Cool’d by the Nile and Annual Winds.

The Heat of this Country is moreover somewhat moderated by the overflowing of Nile, and the continual blowing of cool Northerly Winds, otherwise it would be so vehement, neither Man nor Beast could be able to breath in it. In Winter the Air is hot and dry, tho’ sometimes a little cool, yet generally extream hot, and more prejudicial to the Head than any other part of the Body. Sandys says, p. 76. It is as hot with them in the depth of Winter, as with us in the midst of July. The Air a Nights is cool, which after Sun-rising becomes a little warm, at Noon very hot, but at Night returns to be cold again, so that its inequality breeds many Diseases; nevertheless, in as much as it is exceeding Serene, being constantly free both from Rain, Clouds, Mists, Fogs, Hail, Snow, &c. which rarely happen, it is accounted very healthful; and in this Sense we must take Herodotus Lib. 2. where he says, The Egyptians are the Healthiest People of the World, by reason of the immutability of their Air. But that it Rains, Hails and Snows sometimes in that Country, tho’ many of the Ancients deny it, is plainly confirm’d by several modern Writers, wherefore Sir Thomas Brown places that assertion among his Vulgar Errors, and p. 260 thus confutes it. ’Tis confirm’d, says he, by many, and believ’d by most, that it never Rains in Egypt, the River Nile plentifully supplying that Defect, and bountifully requiting it by its Inundation; yet this must be understood in a qualify’d Sense, that is, that it Rains there but seldom in Summer, and very rarely in Winter. |Rain in Egypt.| But that great Showers do sometimes fall on this Region, besides the Assertion of many Writers, is confirm’d by the Honourable and Occular Testimony of Sir William Paston, Bart. who affirms, That not many Years since it rain’d in Grand Cairo for divers Days together. The same is likewise attested as to other parts of Egypt by Prosper Alpinus, who liv’d long in that Country, and has left us an accurate Treatise of the Medicinal Practice there: Cairi, raro decidunt Pluviæ, Alexandriæ, Pelusiiq; & in omnibus Locis Mari adjacentibus, pluit largissime & sæpe. That is, It Rains seldom at Cairo, but at Alexandria, Damiata, and other Places near the Sea, very often and plentifully. The same likewise is to be inferr’d from this Author concerning Snow, Rarissime Nix, Grando, &c. It seldom either Snows or Hails, wherefore we cannot deny Snow or Hail never to fall because they happen but seldom. The rarity of them however may be the occasion of that Saying of Horace, Lib, 3. Ode 26.

Memphim carentem Scythonia Nive.

Scorch’d Memphis knows no Scythian Snows.

To all this may be added the Testimony of the Learn’d Mr. Greaves, whose Words, as you may find them, p. 74, 75. of his accurate Description of the Pyramids, I will here insert, by reason they not only prove these Rains, but likewise impart some curious Observations on the Air of Egypt and Nile. I cannot, says he, sufficiently wonder at the Ancients who generally deny’d the fall of Rains in Egypt. Plato in his Timæus speaking of this Country, where he had liv’d many Years, writes thus, Κατὰ δὲ τὴν δὲ τὴν χώραν οὔτε τότε, οὔτε ἄλλοτε, ἄνωθεν ἐπὶ τὰς ἀρούρας ὕδωρ ἐπιῤῥεῖ. i. e. But in that Country no Rain falls on the Ground at any Time. Pomponius Mela in express Terms relates, That Egypt is Terra expers Imbrium, miré tamen fertilis; whereas for two Months, viz. December and January, I have not known it Rain so constantly, and with so great impetuosity at London, as I found it to do at Alexandria, the Winds continuing N. N. W. which caus’d me to keep a Diary, as well of the Weather as of my Observations in Astronomy, and that not only there, but also at Grand Cairo. My very noble and worthy Friend, Sir William Paston, observ’d at the same Time that there fell much Rain; so likewise about the end of March following, being at the Mummies somewhat beyond the Pyramids towards the South, there fell a gentle shower of Rain for almost an whole Day together: But it may be the Ancients meant the upper part of Egypt, beyond Thebes, about Siene, and near the Catadupæ or Cataracts of Nile and not the lower Parts; for there indeed I have been told by the Egyptians it seldom Rains, wherefore Seneca Lib. 4. Natur. Quæst. may have written true, where he says, |Snow in Egypt| In ea parte quæ in Æthiopiam vergit, speaking of Egypt, aut nulli Imbres sunt aut rari. But where he says, Alexandriæ Nives non cadunt, ’tis false; for at my being there in January it snow’d one whole Night. However, farther towards the South than Egypt, between the Tropicks, and near the Line, in the Country of Abyssinia or Æthiopia, there falls every Year, for many Weeks together, store of Rain, as the Abyssins themselves have related at Grand Cairo, which may likewise be confirm’d by Josephus Acosta, Lib. 1. De naturâ Orbis novi, where he observes, that in Peru and some other Places, lying in the same Paralel with Æthiopia, they have abundance of Rain. |Cause of the Inundation of Nile.| This then is the true Cause of the Inundation of Nile in the Summer-Time, it being then highest when other Rivers are lowest, and not those which are alledg’d by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, Aristides, Heliodorus and others, who are all extreamly troubl’d to give a Reason for the Inundation of this River, imputing it either to the peculiar Nature of its Water, the obstruction of it by the Etesiæ, or else to the melting of the Snows in Æthiopia, which however I verily believe rarely fall in those hot Countries, where the Natives, by reason of the extream Heats, are all Black, and where, if we credit Seneca, Argentum replumbatur, Silver is melted by the scorching Climate, or in a word, to some other such like Reasons of small weight. In Diodorus Siculus I find Agatharcides Cnidius giving almost the same Reason I have done, whose Assertion however those Times gave but little credit to, yet does Diodorus seem to agree with it in these words, Lib. 1. Agatharcides Cnidius has come nearest the Truth, he affirming that every Year, in the Mountains about Æthiopia, there are continual Rains from the Summer Solstice to the Autumnal Equinox, which cause this Inundation of Nile. The Time of this is so certain, that I have known the Egyptian Astronomers put down many Years before in their Ephemerides, That such a Day of such a Month the Nile will begin to rise. Thus far Greaves, to which I may add an Experiment of the Lord Bacon’s concerning the scarcity of Rain in Egypt. |An Experiment concerning the scarcity of Rain in Egypt.| ’Tis strange, says he, p. 161. of his Natural History, the River Nile overflowing as it does the Country of Egypt, there should nevertheless be little or no Rain known in that Country. The Cause must lye either in the Nature of the Water, the Air, or of both. As for the Water, it may, First, be ascrib’d to its long Course; for swift running Waters vapour less than those that are standing, as those that have been sometimes boyling on the Fire, do not cast so great a steam as they did at first: Now ’tis certain the Waters of Nile are sweeter than others in taste, and excellent good against the Stone and Hypocondriacal Melancholy, which shews they are Lenifying. Secondly, The Reason of this Inundation may be, that these Waters running thro’ a Country of a hot Climate and flat, without shade either from Woods or Hills, the Sun must thereby necessarily have greater power to concoct them. As for the Air, whence I conceive this want of Showers chiefly comes, the Cause must be, that the Air of it self is thin and thirsty, and therefore so soon as ever it gets any moisture from the Water, it imbibes and disperses it throughout its whole Body, not suffering it to remain in a Vapour whereby it might breed Rain. Now tho’ it is not to be deny’d that Rains fall sometimes in Egypt, yet this may however be averr’d, that they happen but seldom, therefore the Air must consequently be more settl’d than ours and freer from Vapours, Fogs, or the like, which renders it not only healthful, but very beneficial in preserving and Embalming Bodies, they being by nothing so much damnify’d as by uncertain Weather, |Moist Air prejudicial to Embalming.| of which we have too sad Experience in this our moist Climate. We are therefore forc’d to supply the want of this, either by a total exclusion of the Air by Air-Pumps, by immerging our dead Bodies into Spirituous or Balsamic Liquors, or else by driving away all Damps and Moistures by moderate Fires. This every one knows who has been us’d either to Confectionery, preserving natural Curiosities, or the like, to whom the giving, relaxing or molding Things, serves as a Thermometer whereby to distinguish the several changes and varieties of the Weather.

Egypt has not only an advantage of other Countries by the goodness of its Water, serenity of its Air, and warmth of its Climate, but also derives a yet farther Benefit in regard of Embalming, |Sand how useful in Embalming.| from the Nature of its Sand and Soil, the usefulness of which has in this respect been sufficiently experienc’d by Modern Artists. Thus it is reported curious Florists preserve both the form and colours of beauteous Plants, by laying them in Sand, drying them in an Oven, or the like; and thus some modern Embalmers have, by hot Sand laid on prepar’d Bodies, dry’d up the superfluous Moisture, and reduc’d their Embalming Matter to a just Consistency: ’Tis likewise observable some Sands will naturally Embalm without any addition of Balsamic Ingredients. Moreover, ’tis probable the Sea-Sands may have the like Effect, provided they be not too often wet; for thus a Body being first pickl’d or salted, as it were with the Sea-Brine, may afterwards, when dry’d by the Wind or Sun, remain firm and durable as long as it shall be preserv’d free from Wet or Moisture; and partly of this Opinion perhaps was Mr. William Glanvill of the Temple, who having so order’d it in his Will, was bury’d in the Goodwin-Sands, which tho’ they cannot preserve him, as before alledg’d, because so often wet, yet he being inclos’d in a leaden Coffin, that must in Time sink to the bottom, they may by their coolness help to keep his Corps entire for many Years; or at least by being so secur’d, he will be defended from the rapine of Animals, or disturbances of Sextons: But the Sands of Egypt being much more hot, from the reflection of the scorching Sun, are capable of Preserving Bodies without either Salination or Embalming, and that only by exhaling and drying up the Humidities and adventitious Moisture, insomuch that it has occasion’d no small Contests among some Authors, which of the two is the truer Mummy, that dry’d in the Sands, or that which is Embalm’d with Balsams and Aromatics. Le Fevre in his Chymistry, p. 138. is entirely of the first Opinion; but I shall refer such Disputes to their proper Places.

Mummies found in the Sands.

Of those sorts of Mummies there have been many casually found in the Desarts of Egypt, Lybia, Arabia, &c. suppos’d to have been Travellers suffocated by great drifts of Sand, rais’d by sudden Tempests; for it sometimes so happens, that contrary Winds arising of a sudden, agitate the Sands with such impetuosity, that they over-whelm Passengers and Beasts with their Burthens, who perishing thus unawares, are thro’ the power of the hot Sun and parching Sand so dry’d, they become fix’d and for ever undissolvable.

Drying Quality of the Earth.

Next as to the Medicinal Virtue of the Soil of Egypt, and how far it may be serviceable in Embalming and preserving Bodies, every one, who does but consider its great Stipticity and drying Nature, will be very well satisfy’d: Besides this Earth is never much dampt by Rains or Springs, but kept constantly dry by the warmth of the Sun. Aetius and Galen commend it as good against Phlegmons, Oedematous Tumors, and immoderate Fluxes of the Hæmorhoids; also that it cures Dropsies meerly by anointing with it, of which see more in Olaus Borrichius, p. 146. Thus having consider’d the Water, Air and Earth of Egypt, I will next add some Observations of Father Vansleb on the Seasons of the Egyptian Year, with their Computation of Time, calculated according to the Account of the Copties.

Seasons of the Year.

The Egyptians reckon their Autumn from the 15th of September to the 15th of December. Winter begins with them the 15th of December, and ends the 15th of March. Spring begins the 15th of March, and ends the 15th of June. Summer begins the 15th of June, and ends the 15th of September. They allot every Season just Three Months, and begin their Year in September, as I observ’d before. Every Month has Thirty Days, which in Twelve Months make Three hundred and sixty Days; but because there yet want Five to complete the Year, they add those at the end of all, and call them Epagomene, which signifies added.

Temperate Season.

The most temperate Season, has still somewhat of Spring or Autumn in it, which two last cannot well be distinguish’d in Egypt. Now the mild Weather commences in September, then they begin to breath the fresh Air, but, as about this Time, the Fields are all so cover’d with Water, one cannot Walk nor Travel by Land; an Abode there is not pleasant till the middle of November, for then the Country’s dry, the Ways free, the Waters run into their Channels, the Air pleasant, the heat of the Sun supportable, the Fields green and sweet, and refreshing Gales blow every-where. In short, the Season is then very comfortable, and so continues ’till the middle of April.

Cold Season.

The cold Season, answerable to our Winter, begins about the middle of December. It is a delightful Time, unless in those seven Days which the Arabians term, Berd il agiuz, (the cold of the old Hag.) They begin about the 7th of February, and continue to the 14th. The Mornings are then exceeding cold, the Sky cloudy, Rains fall, and the Winds are continually boisterous. Now tho’ Winter be in this Country extream mild, yet do Persons of Quality always wear furr’d Gowns from the Month of November to that of March, not on account of any great cold, for there is hardly any at this Time; but because the Weather is then more variable, and the Egyptians fear to be incommoded by Distempers, which such a changeable Time occasions.

Intemperate Season.

Summer is the worst and most troublesome Season, by reason of the excessive heat of the hot Winds, and the perilous Diseases that are rife about this Time, which the Egyptians term Camsins, and we Easter: This dangerous Season begins about the Easter-Monday of the Copties, and ends with their Whitson-Monday. About this Time the Winds, the Arabians term Merissi, are boisterous; they are so hot and troublesome, People are ready to be stifl’d by them, and raise in the Air so much Straw and Sand, the Sky is almost darkned with it: This Sand is so subtile, it penetrates every little chink and cranny. About this Time Malignant Fevers, Dysenterys, and many other Diseases commonly reign, the least of which is incurable if not resisted by necessary Remedies timely apply’d; nay, when these Winds blow, Bodies that were healthy before, will sicken and grow out of order.

The Winds which blow most in Egypt.

These Southerly Winds blow not every Day in this Season, nor every Year in the same manner, or with a like impetuosity. ’Tis not possible to express the Peoples Joy when they favour them by becoming mild. Besides the two chief Winds which blow in Egypt, viz. Merissi and Maltem, I must farther take notice, that not only the Southern Winds are term’d Merissi, but also the Eastern. These blow commonly twice every Year, at Easter, call’d, as I have already said, Camsin, and from the Month of November to the middle of February. The Winds call’d Maltem or Teijah are Westerly ones; they begin about Twelve Days before the Rains fall, and last ’till the Month of November, during which Time scarce any other Wind blows. The Winds Merissi are hot and spoil the Corn, whereas these nourish and refresh it, and not only so, but prove comfortable both to Man and Beast, since they are cooling and afford strength.

Rains or Mists of Egypt.

The ordinary Time for Rains and Winds, which might be compar’d to our Autumn, begins in the Month of December, and lasts ’till January or February, tho’ at Rosetta and Alexandria the Rains fall at other Times, by reason of the propinquity of the Sea, nay sometimes it happens to be misty and moist at a Season when none expect it, which often proves so considerable as to wet ones Cloaths, as much as a shower of Rain: But these moist Mists are more frequent about Cairo than any where else. They usually begin about November, before the rising of the Sun, and continue all Winter. Some happen in other Seasons, and many times in Summer, as Vansleb observ’d in the Year 1672. at the beginning of August, when returning back from Fium to Mocanan, a Village about Four Hours from Cairo, he saw over that City so thick a Mist, he could neither see the Buildings there, nor the Pyramids that are near, tho’ the Air was clear where he stood.

Dew of Egypt.

Throughout all the Seasons of the Year, when the Nights are serene, so much Dew falls it may well be taken for a moderate Shower, whereas when ever the Sky is cloudy no Dew must be expected. Were it not for these Dews, there would neither be Grass nor Corn in Egypt; the Trees would bear no Fruit, nor could the wild Beasts in the Desarts live, here being neither Fountains nor Rivers, and the Rains falling but seldom. |Thunder seldom heard.| Thunder is rarely heard, for in all the Time Vansleb liv’d in Egypt, he says, he heard that noise but twice, viz. on the First of January and the Fourth of May, 1673.

Seasons why to be observ’d in Embalming.

These Things are to be regarded the more particularly, in that the temperature of Seasons conduces much to the preservation of Bodies, which is so far to be consider’d, as it acquaints us when is the best and most proper Time for Pickling, Preserving or Embalming Bodies; what Time of the Year, Day or Moon is best for gathering Fruits, Flowers, Plants, &c. in order to the well preserving and laying them up, as also what Places are fittest for Repositories for them after they are gather’d and prepar’d; for there are some, both Places and Airs, where Sweet-Meats will give and dissolve, bak’d Meats, Pyes, &c. gather mould, Liquors mother, and Flesh or Fish corrupt sooner than in others, wherefore such Places are to be avoided as exceeding prejudicial to Embalm’d Bodies, in as much as they will dispose what is not preserv’d, to Putrifaction, and what is, to Relaxation. For this Reason my Lord Bacon advises us well, to be very careful in our choice of Places for this purpose, and to the end the aptness or propensity either of the Air or Water, to corrupt or putrifie, may be easier found out, proposes the following Experiments: |Experiments of the Air.| First, To lay Wool, Sponge or a piece of Bread in a Place one would make Tryal of, and then to observe whether it be wetter or more ponderous than the same was when laid in other Places, by which one may judge whether the Place design’d be in a moist or gross Air. Secondly, To expose raw Flesh or Fish to the open Air, or lay them on the Earth, when if they quickly corrupt, ’tis a sign of a disposition in that Air to Putrifaction. Thirdly, The quick Putrifaction of Waters or Dews may likewise disclose the Qualities of the Air and Vapours of the Earth more or less corrupt: ’Tis good also to make Trial not only of the moisture and dryness of the Air, but of the Temper thereof in heat or cold; for that may concern Health variously, and whatever in this respect conduces thereto, the same is to be observ’d in Embalming. Fourthly, The goodness of Airs is likewise to be known by placing two Weather-Glasses in several Places, where no shades or inclosures are, and then remarking their difference, and the like. Now these sorts of Experiments serve for a natural Divination of Seasons, shewing them much better than any Astronomers can do by their Figures. They also inform us of the wholsomness or unwholsomness of Dwelling-Places, and where to erect Granaries for Corn, Store-Houses for Fruits, Green-Houses for Plants, Vaults for Wine, and Conservatories for other Things which require keeping either hot, or cold and dry.

Of the Water.

Next as to Waters, this may serve for one Trial of their goodness, viz. To observe which will keep sweet the longest, for such likewise denote the Healthfulness of any Place: Now, how far the goodness of Waters tend to the preservation of Bodies and Things, may well enough be observ’d from Brewing, Washing, Baking, and the like; for those that make the strongest Drink, are ever the best concocted and most nourishing; those that bear Soap well, fret not out Cloaths like those that are hungry, but are fat, smooth and soft in Taste, which is also allow’d to be a general sign of good Water; so likewise such as are lightest and most apt quickly to boil away, are always best. Now these are the most useful in making Bread, Pyes, &c. and will keep them longest without moulding; but of all European-Waters that of the River Thames is the most noted for making Sea-Beer and Bisket, which are carry’d the longest Voyages, and into the hottest Countries of both East and West-Indies.

The Air and Water of Egypt very good.

By these Considerations on the Air and Water, we may see the great advantage Egypt receiv’d from the clearness and dryness of the one, and sweetness and softness of the other, to which Herodotus chiefly attributes the Health and long Life of those People, as we, in some measure, may the continuance and duration of their Embalmings; for, as inequality of Air is pernicious to Health, so it is also to Embalming, therefore we find the Winter-Seasons are not so proper for this Art as the Summer, as producing much Rain, with misty or foggy Weather, which disposes all things to Putrifaction, in so much that Flesh is then hardly to be kept from being musty or stinking, by reason it will not so well take Salt at that Time. Things preserv’d with Sugar relax, and dry’d Things, imbibing the moisture, either rot or mould, which Mouldiness is a beginning of Putrifaction, that afterwards turns to Worms or odious Stinks. |Inequality of Air bad for Embalming.| Now as inequality of Air produces Putrifaction, so does also an interchangeableness of heat and cold, wet and dry, as may be observ’d from the mouldring of Earth in Frost and the Sun, or in the more hasty rotting of Wood that is sometimes wet and sometimes dry; so likewise a certain degree of heat or cold preserves and keeps Bodies from Putrifaction, whereas a tepid heat inclines them to it; for, tho’ such a weak degree of heat may put the Spirits in a little motion, yet is it not able to digest the Parts, or rarifie them, as may be seen by Flesh kept in a Room that is not cool, whereas in a cold and wet Larder ’twill keep much longer, and we observe that Vivification, as the Lord Bacon says in his Nat. Hist. p. 74. (whereof Putrifaction is the bastard Brother) is effected by such soft Heats, as the hatching of Eggs, commonly practis’d at Cairo, the heat of the Womb, &c. whereas such a heat as breaths forth adventitious Moisture best preserves Bodies; for as wetting hastens Corruption, so convenient drying (whereby the more radical Moisture is only kept in) puts back Putrifaction: So we may also observe that Herbs and Flowers, when dry’d in the shade or hot Sun, for a small space keep best. For these Reasons the warm Climate of Egypt must needs conduce best to the preservation of Things and Embalming Bodies, provided it be not attempted in the extream heat of the Summer, which is between Easter and Whitsontide, at which Time the hot Southerly Winds blow, which bring malignant Fevers, Plagues and great Putrifactions. Thus much as to the temperature of the Air shall suffice; next we must speak of the Egyptians.

The antient Egyptians.

The antient and true Egyptians were the Copties or Copts, so call’d, as I have formerly shown, p. 126. from Coptus, Son of Misraim, who became King of Egypt upon the Decease of his Father, and his Conquest over his Brothers; for those who now inhabit that Country, according to Sandys, Heylin and others, |Character of the modern Egyptians.| are much degenerate from the Ingenuity and Worth of their Ancestors, being not only Ignorant but Barbarous, devoted to Luxury and Venery, and naturally addicted to detract from what is Good and Eminent, nay, in a word, they are both Cowardly and Cruel. In their Dealings they are more Observant than Faithful; of a Genius much inclin’d to Craftiness, and very eager of Profit. Such as inhabit the Cities apply themselves to Merchandize, grow Rich by Trading, are reasonably well Habited, and not very differing from the Turks in Dress and Fashion. Those in the Country, who follow Husbandry, are affirm’d to be a brutish and nasty People, crusted over with Dirt, and stinking of Smoak and their abominable Fuel; for they burn their own Dung, and that of Cattle, instead of Wood, which is here so scarce it is sold by weight, and us’d only by Foreigners and the richer sort. Nothing now remains among them of the laudable Arts of their Ancestors, but a ridiculous affectation of Divination and Fortune-telling, in which, and some other cheating Tricks, they are very well vers’d, great numbers of them wandring from Place to Place, to get their Livelihoods that way. This occasions Vagabonds and Straglers of other Nations, who pretend to the same false Arts to assume their Names. The whole Body of the present Inhabitants is an hotchpotch or medly of many foreign Nations, such as Moors, Arabians, Turks, Greeks, Jews, Franks, &c. the natural Egyptians making the least part of the number.

The Make, Complexion and Temper of the Egyptians.

Now as concerning the Make, Complexion, Temper and Constitution of the Egyptians in general, that varies according to the different Quality or Employ of the Person or Sex. Those that dwell in Cairo and other Cities are gross, corpulent and sanguine, whereas the wandring Arabians and Husbandmen are meagre and slender, very active and nimble, yet withal hairy, sweaty, and almost scorcht and burnt up with the Sun. The People in general are of a mean Stature, tawny Complexion, and spare Bodies, and this is remarkable of them, that tho’ their Country be in the same Climate with Barbary, yet are they not black, but tawny or olive-colour’d. The Women are of the same Complexion with the Men, yet well shap’d and featur’d, did not they too much affect a seeming Corpulency, which if they cannot get in Flesh they will be sure to have in Cloaths. |Their Women fruitful in Children.| They Marry at Ten, or at farthest at Twelve Years of Age, being very fruitful, some bearing Three or Four Children at a Birth; and those that are born in the Eighth Month live to a good Age, and are not in such danger of Death, as in other Countries.

Their Constitutions and Habits of Body.

As to the Constitutions of the Egyptians, they are hot and dry, being by nature very wakeful and little inclin’d to sleep. They are of a chearful Temper, yet delight much in an idle and lazy kind of Life, being immoderate Votaries to Venus. Their continual Bathing, drinking the Waters of Nile, and using cold Food, mightily lessen and alter their heat and drought; but then this inconveniency ensues, that they have cold and raw Stomachs full of Phlegm, which not only proceeds from such cold Dyet, but also from the extraordinary heat of the Air, whereby the natural heat is overcome.

Are very long liv’d.

They are nevertheless said to be longer liv’d than those of other Countries, it being common to find among them People of above a Hundred Years of Age. The reason of this longœvity Phisicians differ greatly about, yet assign, as the chiefest Cause of it, next to the Air, the spare way of living of that People, they eating little Flesh, but store of Roots, Fruits and Herbs, nor often drinking any Wine, but commonly Water, and sometimes Beer, which Herodotus Lib. 1. Sect. 77. assures us the antient Egyptians made. On the contrary, all Europeans, who drink abundance of Wine, and eat much Flesh, are for the most part short liv’d. |A Problem concerning Diet.| Therefore whether it were not better for us to conform to the simple Diet of our Forefathers? Whether pure and simple Waters be not more healthful than fermented Liquors? Whether there be not an ample sufficiency in the Food of Honey, Oil, and several parts of Milk; in the great variety of Grains, Pulses and all sorts of Fruits, since either Bread or Beverage may be made almost of all of them? Whether Nations have rightly confin’d themselves to peculiar Meats? Whether the common Food of one Country be not more agreeable to another? How indistinctly all Tempers apply to the same, and how the Diet of Youth and old Age is confounded, are Considerations worth our notice, says Sir Thomas Brown in his Vulgar Errors, p. 138. and might not a little prolong our Days; yet must not this Discourse, therefore I will proceed to speak of some Diseases the Egyptians have been always liable to. |Their Diseases.| These are occasion’d either by the intemperate Air, the Summers here being exceeding hot and sultry, or else by reason the Poor, who are very numerous, are necessitated to eat foul and unwholsome Food, such as the flesh of Camels, of Crocodiles, (by some worshipp’d and consequently held Irreligious) rotten salt Fish, and mouldy stinking Cheese, by them call’d Gibnehalon. They are also accustom’d to drink muddy and corrupt Waters, whereby is ingendred much Choler, thick and adust Blood, gross and crude Humours, which create many Distempers, the chief of which, and most to our purpose, are Sore Eyes and Blindness, Scabs and Leprosie, Dropsie, Frenzie, Malignant Fevers, Poxes of both kinds, Plague and Pestilence, &c. which tho’ other Nations are likewise subject to, yet it being not so constantly or grieviously, these may properly enough be nam’d, The Plagues of Egypt; wherefore I shall a little expatiate upon them, with a suitable Application to our Subject of Embalming.

Sore Eyes and Blindness.

First, I shall take notice of the incredible number of blind People in Egypt, but more-especially in Cairo, where sore Eyes or Opthalmia are so common, scarce half the Inhabitants escape them. Nay, new-born infants are so troubl’d with this Distemper, that it is sometimes hardly to be cur’d, for it seems a Disease lodg’d in the Blood, of which the Natives give this Reason, viz. That the subtile Particles of the Lime, wherewith their Houses are built, being carry’d about by the Wind, stick so close to the Eyes, that they not only cause Inflammations, but likewise insensibly mixing with the Blood, occasion this Distemper to be Hereditary; to which Sandys adds, as other Causes of this Disease, the reflecting heat of the Sun, the salt Dust of the Soil, and the Inhabitants excessive Venery; wherefore did they not use frequent Bathings in this Country, the stinking Sweat of their Bodies, mix’d with this Dust, which so continually rises and adheres to them, wou’d, by stopping their Pores, not only render them nasty and frowzy, but also their Blood becoming Pruriginous, and exalted by the salt and corrupt Diet, |Scabs and Leprosie.| wou’d, as it often does, produce Mange, Scabs and Leprosies; so that to keep themselves sweet, clean and free from these Diseases, they are wont to use constant Bathings, and refrain from salt Meats, which are very unwholsome to these Eastern Nations. Herodotus assures us they in his Time abstain’d from Swines Flesh, as particularly apt to beget Leprosie in hot Countries, if salted, and if not, or well roasted, infallibly brings a Diarrhæa, or else turns to some dangerous Fever or Surfet. Hippocrates, Lib. Poss. p. 5. observes, it throws some People into a Cholera Morbus, that is, It works vehemently upon them by Choleric Vomits and Stools. Plutarch likewise remarks, that the very Milk of this Beast being drank, produces the Scab, &c.

Dropsie.

The Egyptians also from their too frequent use of Colocasia, Bammia, Melochia, Beets, and such like Herbs as occasion thick and tough Flegm, are often troubl’d with the Dropsie, which swells and puffs up their Legs, with abundance of hard and gross Humours, like the Legs of an Elephant, tho’ indeed they feel no pain, but are only unweildy to walk.

Apoplexy.

At Cairo rages that most terrible Disease call’d by the Arabians, Dem el Muia, which in few Hours seizes the Brain like an Apoplexy, and bereaving it of Sense, soon dispatches the Patient. Every Year once the Egyptians are surpriz’d by this Disease, and multitudes die dayly of it. At the same Time Children are wont to be greatly afflicted with a malignant kind of Pox, |Small Pox.| bred out of venemous Damps, arising from the corrupt Waters of Caleg, a Branch or rather Trench cut from the Nile to Alexandria. Every Year, when that River rises 8 or 10 Cubits, it falls into this Trench, and so runs thro’ the whole City; so that, at the retiring of the River, this Water, remaining without motion, stagnates and corrupts: It first becomes green, then black, and at length sends fourth Pestilential Vapours, whereby the Air is polluted and this Infection caus’d, wherefore, some Time before it is expected, all the Children thereabouts are remov’d to other Places. Sandys also tells us, |French Pox.| the French Pox is exceedingly rife among the Egyptians, which however is not to be wonder’d at if we consider their hot Constitution, excessive Venery, &c.

Malignant Agues.

In Alexandria many malignant and mortal Agues reign about the Time of their Harvest, occasion’d by drinking the tainted and foul Waters, which the Townsmen keep from Year to Year in Wells under their Houses. But the most destructive of all Diseases to the Egyptians is the Pestilence or Plague, |Plague.| which very frequently visits them, and is the more prevalent in that they seek no Remedy for it, as believing none can die of it but such as are destin’d by GOD. For this Reason they never go about to avoid any infected Person or Place, for that they look upon as Irreligious. Nay the very Cloaths or Houshold-Goods of such as die of this Distemper, are instantly sold in the open Market by Outcry, which none are afraid to buy, thro’ which mad obstinacy, in this their foolish Opinion, the Plague has in Cairo, during only the space of six or seven Months, sometimes swept away above Five hundred thousand People, as was observ’d in the Year 1580.

Those Plagues which come out of Barbary are the most pernicious and of longest continuance, of which kind was the before mention’d; whereas such as come from Greece or Syria are more mild and of a shorter duration; for this Disease is seldom or never occasion’d by Putrifaction of Air in Egypt, unless the Nile, overflowing the Country too high, leaves its Waters a long while on the Ground, whereby the whole Land becoming a corrupt and standing Lake, that by the Southerly Winds and Summers heat, may be ripen’d and made fit to send up infectious Steams. That Plague which begins in the first Months of Summer is the worst, whereas that which comes later is milder and ceases sooner. But let the Plague rage never so fiercely, when the Sun enters Cancer, which is the Time of Nile’s overflowing, it wholly ceases, insomuch that not one then dies of it, as has been before shown. The Reason of this so sudden alteration seems to be the even and constant Temperature of the Air, thro’ the blowing of the anniversary North Winds, which then begin to rise and oppose the moist Nature of the South Winds, call’d Camsin. Now these cooling, as well the Air as Mens Bodies, and taking away the Cause (the infectious Heat) the Effect soon ceases.

Thus far have I shown how the infection of Air and Water may occasion many Diseases, which therefore are carefully to be avoided as pernicious to Embalming: I shall now only observe, that as the even Temper and good Humour of Man tends much to his Health and long Life, so that healthy State and Constitution, either affords a Natural Embalming, or at least such Bodies are easiest to be preserv’d. But whether those Bodies that dy’d of the Plague, or other malignant Distempers, could with any Art be preserv’d, is a Quære of no small concern in this our Natural History, and must needs to the Egyptians bring a great scruple of Conscience, who believ’d the Metempsychosis or Transmigration of Souls, to think what must become of such Bodies as were not Embalm’d? Since therefore no History can give us any satisfaction herein, we are inclinable to believe they could not any ways be preserv’d, by reason of the immediate tendency of such tabid Carcasses to Putrifaction, and yet we know not but the Egyptians might do more in this case than others could, both thro’ the efficacy and goodness of their Medicines, and their not being afraid of the infectious Steams which issue from such Bodies, during their hot Embalming; which brings me next to enquire into their Skill in Physic, Anatomy and Chymistry. In order to this, I shall first begin with the Rise and Progress of their Physic, according to the Opinion of the Learned Dr. Grew; and then shew its Effects, and how it was practis’d, as affirm’d by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Prosper Alpinus, and others.

Egyptians first Authors of Medicine.

‘The Egyptians, says Dr. Grew in his Cosmologia Sacra, p. 265. being from sundry Causes (some of which we have already discours’d of) the most diseas’d of all People, were also the first Authors of Medicine. Mizraim their first King, otherwise call’d Menez, Osiris, Dionisius and Bacchus, all being Names of the same Person, together with his Wife Isis, apply’d himself to furnish his People with wholsome Food. He with Wine, which he had learn’d to make of his Grandfather Noah; |Osiris taught them Drink and Food.| and with Water, in making the best use of the River Nile; and She, by teaching them, among so many various sorts of Roots and Fruits, |Isis salubrious Plants.| wherewith Egypt abounds, to distinguish the Noxious, many of which, as Sulpitius Severus and P. Alpinus observe, are very sweet and tempting, from those which are wholsome and fit to eat; from whence she was call’d Ὑγεία and Salus.

‘Their next King was Orus, by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus and Athenagoras in his Apology to the Christians, said to be Osiris’s Son. This Prince seeing Food already provided for, bethought himself of some means, such as they were, for the cure of Diseases. The first step he took, being affrighted with a Plague, was to offer Sacrifice to the Celestial Bodies, which he suppos’d Gods, and the only Arbiters of Life and Death. Therefore Anebo the Egyptian Priest, |These Orus, Son of Osiris, apply’d for Physic, by Sacrificing them.| personated by Jamblichus, in his Book of the Egyptian Mysteries says, That, even in his Time, they knew no other way of curing that Disease; and what Isis had found out for Food, he thought best apply’d to this purpose. So Porphyrius in his Book of Sacrifices tells us, the most ancient Egyptians, Cœlestibus litabant, with Herbs, Roots and Fruits, which at first Orus offer’d singly, but afterwards compounded, supposing them thereby, as is intimated by Proclus, the more acceptable.

‘The Plague and other contagious Diseases, being blown away, as they commonly were and are, by the North Winds, Orus thought it decent to solemnize his Sacrifices with Music; |To which he added Music.| and that he had excellent Skill herein, is witness’d by Diodorus, from whence also he is taken to be the Egyptian Apollo. Now finding Music acceptable to the People, he apply’d that also, with the Sacrifices to which it was annex’d, towards the cure of Diseases; for which Reason Music is by Jamblichus, in his Book aforesaid, enobl’d with the Title of Divine. And it seem’d, for many Ages after, so necessary to Medicine, as to give occasion to Thessalus, Head of the Methodic Sect in the Reign of Nero, to brag, That he could make Physicians without the help either of Astrology or Music. Thus all Music consisting in a proportionate Measure, he saw it requisite the Notes or Tunes, and Words he us’d with them, should be commensurate one to the other, and so became the first Poet or Maker of Verses; |And Poetry.| which being us’d with Music, were suppos’d to have the same Divine Virtue, and came at length to be us’d alone in the cure of Diseases. And it is by Sanchuniathon affirm’d, that Misora, that is Misraim, |Thence thought to be the Egyptian Apollo.| was one of those two antient Gods, whose Sons were the Inventors of Medicinal Charms, which as it seems were all the means Orus, or the Egyptian Apollo, invented for the cure of Diseases, viz. Sacrifices, Music and Charms, upon which three he began likewise to build the Art of Divination; and as a branch hereof, his Magical Prognostics in relation to Diseases. ’Next to Orus succeeded Athothus; by Sanchuniathon nam’d, Taautus; by the less antient Egyptians, |Athothus the antient Egyptian Mercury,| Thoyth, and by the Greeks in Alexandria, Thoth. He was the most antient Egyptian Mercury; said by Manetho and Eratosthenes to be Son of Menez or Mizraim, and was therefore younger Brother to Orus, whom he succeeded by Noah’s Gift, as is witness’d by Sanchuniathon: Saturnus, in Deum Taautum a Misore Natum, Egypti Regnum contulit. This Man, to add to what his Predecessor had done, |The Inventor of Images,| was the Inventor of Images, dedicated to the Sun, Moon and Stars, with their Figures upon them, according to their position in the Heavens, supposing they would be more effectually mov’d by the Sacrifices offer’d to them, if thereby honour’d and represented. And that none might be without what he thought so necessary for the Peoples Health, he caus’d the making not only of Images of Gold and Silver, but certain Sculptures or Paintings upon Wood or some other Ground. The Figures or Marks, made upon all these, |Characters,| were properly call’d Characters, and were the original of all those us’d by Magicians in after Times for the cure of Diseases: Whence it is these Characters, which were properly made, are said by Jamblichus to be Diis congrui, that is, agreeable to the Celestial Bodies, they were suppos’d to represent; in which Sense also the Author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, speaking of the Second Person in the Sacred Trinity, uses the same word.

‘The same Athothus, observing how naturally the Music of the Sacrifices put the Body into many Motions, |and Dancing.| took thence occasion to reduce the motion of the Feet, as Apollo had done those of Speech, to a proportionate Measure, that is, to an artificial Dance. That he was first Author hereof, is agreed from his being describ’d with Wings, not only on his Shoulders, but Heels; and that he had taught the People to apply it to Religion, is as evident from the Jews, who had learn’d of the Egyptians to dance about the Golden Calf. Now, seeing this naturally conduces towards the cure of some Diseases, ’tis likely he hereupon invented several sorts of Dances, not as yet considering their natural but magical Aptitude to divers kinds of Diseases, supposing certain Numbers and Measures, might as well as Words, have a Divine Power. Now that he might make his Motions with greater ease in so hot a Country, ’tis probable he danc’d half naked, as David did before the Ark, disdaining the Author of this Ceremony should shew more Zeal before an Idol, than he did before the true GOD. Therefore as the word Gymnasium does properly signifie the Place where People exercise themselves when stripp’d; so upon this Foundation, which Athothus or the first Egyptian Mercury laid, was afterwards rais’d the Gymnastic Art. For this Cause also Jamblichus, speaking of the Powers which flow from the Gods, among those which co-operate with Nature, mentions only the Medicinal and Gymnastic as the two principal, and of kin to each other; nor is there ground to imagine, that in Medicine, Athothus or the first Mercury, understood any Thing more. So that all the means the Egyptians made use of hitherto in the cure of Diseases, viz. ’till about the 350th Year after the Flood, were to be referr’d intirely to their practical Theology, stil’d by Jamblichus θεουργική τέχνη, of which their magical Medicine was a principal part. |Sacrific’d Animals, and learn’d Embalming and Anatomy.| After him they began to Sacrifice Animals as well as Plants, and learn’d the Art of Embalming. The Priests had hereby an opportunity of observing the structure of the inward Parts; and so of making many, both Anatomic and Pathologic Remarks. In doing this it appears by what Pliny says, Lib. 19. 5. That Kings themselves did often assist. Also frequently perceiving the inefficacy of their Magic, they began likewise to enquire into the Physical power of Herbs, and other Remedies proper for the cure of Diseases, and the Cures suppos’d to be made, whether by natural or magical Arts, were preserv’d by some sort of Memoirs made of them by the Priests, |Serapis or Apis the Egyptian Æsculapius.| wherein a more especial care was taken by Serapis or Apis one of the Chief, and the Egyptian Æsculapius. Upon these accounts, the Priests, as they were the Doctors in Philosophy, |Priests the proper Physicians.| so were they the only Physicians, properly so call’d, by whom Directions were given to Surgeons, Embalmers, and all other Operators appertaining to Medicine. They were also of that honourable Degree, as Gyraldus reports from Plato, that out of them the Kings were often chosen. For altho’ the Servants of Joseph, who Embalm’d his Father, were term’d Physicians, yet are we to understand those Men, who were directed by the Priests, the true Physicians, to be only Operators in curing the Infirm or Embalming the Dead. Wherefore the Septuagint, who knew the Law in this Case, do not say, the Command was given τοῖς Ἰατροῖς but τοῖς ἐνταφιασταῖς, a sort of Men to whom the Care of Funerals was committed.

‘The next and greatest Improver and Patron of the Egyptian Medicine, |Hermes Trismegistus.| was Hermes Trismegistus, so call’d says Diodorus Siculus, and others after him, from ἑρμηνεύω, by reason he interpreted the Hieroglyphics and Sacred Language: But this tho’ he did, yet the derivation of his Name from thence is a fiction; for according to the Greek manner of deriving a Noun from a Verb, he should not have been call’d Ἑρμῆς but Ἑρμηνεὺς; and therefore on the contrary, as Ἑλληνίος, ἑλληνίζω and other like Words, are all deriv’d from Ἕλλην the Son of Deucalion, who first planted Greece; so ἑρμηνεύς, ἑρμηνεύω, and other Words of the same nature are all deriv’d from Ἑρμῆς; for the Original whereof, we are not to look into Greece but Egypt, where we find Armais, one of their Kings, and somewhat junior to Moses, |Suppos’d to be Armais.| as Hermes is also said to be. The radical Letters in both are also the same. This Armais was also call’d Amersis or Mersurius, and so by mistake Mercurius; the Coptic Letter Sima being written like the Roman C, and also Trismegistus, or thrice very great, answerable to a like Egyptian Name, now lost, given him, |A great Philosopher, Priest and King.| as he was esteem’d a great Philosopher, a great Priest and a great King.

The second Mercury.

‘This second Mercury, having before him a considerable stock of Observations provided by the Priests, and several others of his own, compos’d all, as Jamblichus from Sulencus and Manetho reports, into many thousands of Volumes, that is, of so many Leaves roul’d up of Books, afterwards made of these Volumes. Clemens Alexandrinus, Strom. 6. says, There were Forty two which were useful; six of them appertaining to Medicine, viz. of Anatomy, Diseases, Surgery, Pharmacy, particular Medicines for the Eyes, infected with many Diseases in Egypt, and lastly for Women; which Books became, as may be gather’d from Diodorus Siculus, as it were the Statute-Law in Egypt, for the practice in Physic in after Times. |The great establisher of Magic.| Yet in all these Books, it is certain, with the physical Account of Things, there was a mixture of Magic; the Author of them being the great Establisher of this Art. Now if some Chronologers are not mistaken when they say Armais was the King who was drown’d in the Red-Sea, then this same Armais, that is, Hermes Trismegistus must be the very Man, who by his Magicians contended with Moses; and was therefore rais’d up, the more remarkably to confound them at his fall. It is manifest the Books now and antiently extant, under this Hermes’s Name, are all of this Nature; which tho’ not written by him, but by certain of the later Egyptian Priests, are believ’d by Jamblichus, Porphirius and others, faithfully to represent his Sense. Therefore Celsus, also quoted by Origen against him, Lib. 8. tells us, as a piece of Egyptian Philosophy, in his Time current, That the Body of Man was divided into Thirty six Parts; each of which was possess’d with a God or Dæmon, which being call’d upon by the Magi, cur’d the Diseases of the parts they possess’d. And as they appropriated several unto one Man, so, says Herodotus, did they to every Beast one; to all, says Justin, but the Hog. And by the Author of the Book entitul’d, Trismegisti Asclepias, the same in effect is said of Plants and Stones, viz. That there was τὸ Θεῖον, something of Divinity in them all; nor was the magical Ceremony laid aside in Galen’s Time, as appears by what he reports of one Pamphilus, Qui ad Præstigiaturas Ægyptias versus fuit, junctis Incantationibus quas obmurmurat, cum Herbas colligunt. Also the Author of the Book, De Medicamentis Expertis, ascrib’d to Galen, speaking of the Egyptian Priests, has this passage, Laudamus Medicos Altarium, Ægyptiorum puta, qui curant cum Cibis Sacrificiorum.

Magical Medicine spread over most Countries.

‘Nor did magical Medicine keep within Egypt only, but was thence spread abroad into most other Countries, partly as they fell under the Government of some of their conquering Kings, and partly as Egypt was the great Academy, to which the Philosophers of other Nations made their resort, and whence Physicians were often call’d unto Foreign Princes, who, with their physical, carry’d abroad their magical Skill. The younger Apollo was Author of Divination in Greece, as the elder was in Egypt. Also in Epidaurus, Cous and other Places, his Temple was always full of sick People; as was likewise that of Æsculapius.

Medicines, why call’d Pharmaca.

‘Medicines were term’d Pharmaca, which antiently signify’d Poysons, because it was believ’d, unless they were magically us’d, they would do more hurt than good; therefore Jarchas, in his Life of Apollonius, tells us also, They who were esteem’d Sons of Æsculapius had made but small proficiency in the Art of Medicine, Nisi Æsculapius, juxta Patris sui Vaticinia, Morbis proficua Remedia composuisset. Nor were the Oriental Nations without their Teraphim, a sort of constellated Images, by them so call’d, and us’d, among other purposes, in the cure of Diseases; from whence θεραπεύω, signifies both to worship and heal. Eusebius also in his Prol. ad Lib. 4. Præp. Evang. reduces all to Theology, as in Egypt, so among the rest of the Gentiles: In Gentilium Theologia Civili, continentur Oracula, Responsa, & Curæ Morborum. So true is that Saying of Celsus, concerning Hippocrates in his Præface: Primus Disciplinam hanc, Medicinalem puta, ab studio Sapientiæ separavit: that is, from magical Theology, the reputed Wisdom of those Times.’

That this was the antient state of Medicine in Egypt, and all over the World, is farther apparent from the Hebrews, being peremptorily requir’d to expel from among them, all such as practis’d the same, Deut. 18. 10, 11. Those who Sacrifice their Children, as the Phænicians did for a Remedy against the Plague, as also Diviners, Observers of Times, Enchanters, Witches, Charmers, Consulters of Familiar Spirits, Wizards and Necromancers; so many kinds of Magicians, who among other Things, undertook the Cure and Prognostics of Diseases, so many several ways, particularly the Charmer, v. 11. term’d by the Septuagint, φαρμακὸς ἐπαείδων ἐπαοιδήν one that us’d Medicines and Charms together: |Magic us’d in Embalming.| Thus was Magic so generally mix’d by the Egyptians with their Physic, that the very Dead that were Embalm’d were not free from it. This appears from the various Ornaments of their Mummies, being adorn’d with painted Characters and Hieroglyphics, and defended by several little Idols or Averruncal Gods. Some of these were plac’d within the Bodies, as suppos’d, perhaps to preserve them from Corruption; and others were sow’d to their out-sides, plac’d upon their Tombs, or in their Burial-Vaults, there to guard them from external Injuries, and by the various Shapes they represented, to deter Men from violating them; but of these we shall speak more particularly in another place.

Yet however Superstitious and Idolatrous the antient Egyptians were in Magical Physic, they were soon convinc’d of the inefficacy of such Practices, therefore study’d other Methods and Physical Remedies, which might prove more prevalent; and altho’ they did not immediately leave off the former, yet was it to the latter only their admirable success in Physic was owing. In like manner are we to believe the preservation of dead Bodies was not effected by those Charms or Idols, found about them, but purely perform’d by an extraordinary Skill in Medicine and Anatomy, and particularly in that exquisite Art of Embalming. In this, that they might be the better instructed, and more thoroughly knowing, they took such infallible Methods, as none could hardly be ignorant of that part they were to perform; for they had these several Persons belonging to and employ’d in Embalming, |Persons how qualify’d for Embalming.| each performing a distinct and separate Office, viz. a Designer or Painter, a Dissector or Anatomist, a Pollinctor or Apothecary, an Embalmer or Surgeon, and a Physician or Priest, which last was a great Philosopher, and taught and instructed the others in these Ceremonies, as we shall shew in its proper Place.

By this means, not only the Art of Embalming, but likewise every branch of Physic, flourish’d and came to the greatest perfection, whereas, in our Age, every Art grows the more imperfect as it incroaches on another, and the civil Wars now a Days between Physicians, Surgeons and Apothecaries have been the chief occasions of reducing Physic to so low an ebb; for whilst these have been fighting for each others Countries, the Monarchy was usurp’d by Quacks and Undertakers, who are the only Vultures that attend such Battles, in order to prey immediately on the vanquish’d Enemy. Now did every one keep to his own Province, as they did formerly in Egypt, there would be none of these Divisions among us, but every Art would flourish and stand upon its own Basis, and yet, I assure you, it would be found more difficult to understand, and perform one Art rightly, than to acquire a superficial Knowledge of many Things, in other Businesses, which relate little to the Purpose. |No Quacks or Undertakers in Egypt.| To prevent these, there were in Egypt no Pretenders to Physic in general, nor any Artists who medl’d with anothers Province, each keeping strictly to his own, as Herodotus assures us in his Euterpe, where he tells us, some only profess’d curing Diseases of the Head, others of the Ears; some were Oculists, others Tooth-Drawers; some for particular Diseases in Men, and others for those in Women. In a word, there were Physicians for every Disease, but none pretended to more than one. The same thing was observ’d in other Arts, for better maintaining of which, a Law was enacted, that if any Person exercis’d more than one Profession or Trade, he should incur the most grievous of Punishments; and King Amasis also made a Law, That such as had no Profession or Trade at all, or did not yearly make appear, to the Governors of the Provinces how they lawfully got their Livelihoods, should be punish’d with Death. This Law Solon borrow’d of the Egyptians, and carry’d to Athens, where he had it put in practice: Is it not therefore a shame for us, who, no doubt, esteem our selves a much more polite People than those Heathens were, to suffer a sort of Men call’d Undertakers, to monopolize the several Trades of Glovers, Milliners, Drapers, Wax-Chandlers, Coffin-Makers, Herald-Painters, Surgeons, Apothecaries, and the like.

Art can never Flourish where they are.

Art can never flourish where ’tis assum’d by every ignorant Pretender, nor be brought to any perfection, while practis’d by illiterate Persons. We may as well expect one, that has never seen a Campaign, should understand Military Discipline; or one that has never been at Sea, Command and Steer a Ship rightly, as that an Upholsterer, a Taylor, Joyner, or the like Undertaker, should be well skill’d in the misterious Art of Embalming. These are the present Grievances, as well in Sciences as Trade, and ’till such Time as Quacks and Undertakers, Hawkers, Pedlers and Interlopers, and all such Persons, as were not brought up in the Emploiment they profess, be remov’d; we can think no otherwise but that Art must sink, Trade be ruin’d, and every public Office, as well at Court as in the Country, be ill serv’d: For whence came every Art and Science, nay all kinds of Learning, to flourish so mightily in Egypt? And how came it to pass the Egyptians so much excell’d, and perform’d more wonderful Works, than all the World beside, but only by strictly confining every Artist to his particular Emploiment, and punishing all that any ways interfer’d with another? But lest we may seem to dwell too long on this Subject, which we think also more convenient to be discours’d of in another part of this Book, we will next proceed to consider, besides their Pharmacy, the extraordinary Skill of the Egyptians in other Branches of Physic, such as Anatomy, Chymistry, Surgery, &c.

Egyptians well skill’d in Anatomy.

That the Egyptians must needs understand the natural Oeconomy of the Body, appears in that they were the first that employ’d their Industry in searching out the inward Nature of Animals by Anatomy, and first open’d Human Bodies to discover their respective Diseases. Olaus Borrichius, Lib. de Ægypt. Sap. p. 141. brings many Arguments to prove their Knowledge in Anatomy; and among them, this out of Aulus Gellius, Lib. 10. c. 10. Veteres Græcos, annulum habuisse in Digito sinistræ Manus, qui minimo est proximus: Romanos quoque Homines aiunt sic plerumq; Annulis usitatos; Causam esse hujus rei Appion in Libris Ægyptiacis hanc dicit; Quod insectis apertisq; Humanis Corporibus, ut mos in Ægypto fuit, quas Græci Ἀνατομὰς apellant repertum est Nervum quendam tenuissimum, ab eo uno Digito, de quo diximus, ad Cor Hominis pergere ac pervenire: Propterea non inscitum visum esse, eum potissimum Digitum tali Honore decorandum, qui continens & quasi connexus esse in principatu Cordis videretur. That the antient Greeks wore a Ring on that Finger of the left Hand, which is next to the little one: And it is likewise said of the Romans, that they for the most part wore their Rings in the same manner; of which Appion, in his Egyptian Treatises, gives this Reason; That the Egyptians in Dissecting, and opening Human Bodies, which was a Custom among them, call’d by the Greeks Anatomy, found a certain slender Nerve, deriv’d from their Finger above-mention’d, which crept along ’till it inserted it self into the Heart; wherefore they thought convenient that Finger should chiefly be adorn’d with such Honour. Macrobius, as quoted by Polydor Virgil, de Rerum Inventione, p. 140. affirms likewise, Quod ille Digitus annulo ornatur, quia ab eo Nervus quidam ad Cor pertinet. Also in Saturnius, Lib. 7. c. 13. Disarius, in consulting the Egyptian Books of Anatomy, says, he found the same. Orus adds, that for this Reason the Egyptian Priests anointed that Finger with sweet Odours; which Doctrine however, Conringius says, deserves rather to be laugh’d at than confuted; nevertheless, Borrichius thinks there may perhaps be a more secret consent between that Finger and the Heart, than young Anatomists are aware of, therefore endeavours to prove the same, p. 143. However, says he, we need not wonder if the Egyptians were sometimes in the dark, when at this Day the Anatomy of the Greeks is so empty; and surely ’twas as easie a matter for the Greeks to have added something more solid, to the Egyptian Anatomy, as for us Moderns to have so much improv’d it after them. But nothing was invented and perfected at the same Time, therefore we must not imagine the Anatomy of the Egyptians to have been so compleat as ours is now. Yet he that shall think the wise Egyptians could be so absurd as to believe the Heart Annually increas’d the weight of two Drams, for the space of Fifty Years, and afterwards gradually decreas’d for Fifty more, must needs be guilty of too great credulity, since none can doubt but that Persons of all Ages were open’d by them, in order to Embalming, and therefore such like Follies must of necessity have been refuted by ocular Inspection and Demonstration. That which Conringius chiefly builds upon, is, that all the Anatomy of the Egyptians was only instituted for the use of Embalming; yet, which is likewise confuted by Pliny, Lib. 19. c. 5. where speaking of the Phthiriasis, he says, The Cure thereof was found out in Egypt, Kings being accustom’d to Dissect dead Bodies, for that purpose: The words are plain, In Ægypto Regibus Corpora mortuorum ad scrutandos Morbos insectantibus. This I look upon to be the chief intent of their Anatomy, and not the use of Embalming, since, if we may believe Diodorus Siculus, those who were the Dissectors very probably understood no more than what they were directed to perform by the Priest and Scribe. The same Author assures us it was even a very unthankful Office to perform that; for no sooner had they finish’d their Incision, but they were forc’d to run away, the By-standers most commonly flinging Stones at them, as abhorring to see them exercise such seeming Cruelty on their Friend or Relation. Yet this does not disprove their Skill or Practice of Anatomy for other Purposes, since, besides the foregoing Arguments, we are assur’d they were well acquainted with Ostiology; |And Ostiology.| for Galen, Lib. 1. De admin. Anatom. advising as well ocular Inspection as reading good Authors, says, It is best to be done at Alexandria, where Physicians, expose to the sight of their Auditors, the Discipline of the Bones. On the contrary, tho’ the Egyptian Embalmers did not rightly understand Anatomy, yet is that Art nevertheless very requisite to be known, by those who would be thoroughly acquainted with the more exquisite Methods of the Moderns; for hereby they may be instructed how to keep the Muscles, make Skeletons, and prepare Schemes of the Nerves, Arteries and Veins, as likewise to preserve the Brain, Lungs, Stomach, Bowels, Uterus, and other curious Preparations, which serve instead of Books or Pictures for the Instruction of young Pupils, and refreshing the Memories of more experienc’d Practicers. In a word, I may justly say, to Anatomy are owing those rare Inventions of Steno, Swammerdam, Ruysh, Blanchard, Bilsius and others, for their new Methods of Embalming.

Chymistry Invented by Hermes.

As Chymistry is said to have had its Rise in Egypt, so is it also generally suppos’d to have been invented by Hermes. But that this Art was somewhat different from what we at this Day understand by that Denomination, appears from the Etymology of the Word, which the Greeks call, χημεία, ἡ τοῦ ἀργύρου καὶ χρυσοῦ κατασκευή, al. χυμία, i. e. Fusio Metallorum; præfixo artic. |The Art of making Gold and Silver.| Arab, Al, Alchimy, Chymistry; or, The Art of melting and counterfeiting Metals. Suidas likewise calls Chymistry, The preparation or making of Gold and Silver. This was the true Philosophers Stone which so enrich’d that Kingdom, and brought all their Arts to a mighty Perfection; and in quest of which, so many Persons of all Nations have since fruitlesly consum’d both their Lives and Fortunes. Whereas, on the contrary, by this Art the Wealth of the Egyptians was increas’d to that immense degree, that they study’d means how to expend what they had heap’d up. On this occasion Pliny, Lib. 36. c. 12. thus writes: Dicuntur, says he, obiter & Pyramides in eadem Ægypto, Regum Pecuniæ otiosa & stulta Ostentatio. But besides their Pyramids, their Obelisques, Colossus’s, Monuments, Pensile Gardens and Cities, their Labyrinth, Lake Mœris, and the like stupendious Works, which cost so many Millions of Talents, are sufficient Arguments of their Skill in Alchymy, whence they receiv’d so vast a supply of Riches. ’Tis recorded of Ptolomy Philadelphus, he spent at one pompous Show at Alexandria, and that even when Egypt was declining, 2239 Talents, as Athenæus reckons up, Deipn. Lib. 5. c. 8. Not to mention their Statues and Temples of entire Gold, or the Cedar Ship, built by Sesostris, which was 280 Cubits in length, the outside cover’d with Gold, and the inside with Silver, as Diodorus asserts. We have a sufficient remarkable instance of their great Riches in the Tomb of Osymanduas, describ’d by the same Author, about which there was a Circle of Gold 365 Cubits in compass, and one Cubit thick, which Circle was afterwards carry’d away by Cambyses, the Persian Monarch, when he conquer’d Egypt; besides which, as Marcellinus, Lib. 6. reports, he took out of Thebes 300 Talens of Gold, and at least 2300 of Silver. Now, since no Authors mention any Gold Mines in the Time of Osiris or Hermes, whence can we imagine they should acquire such exceeding great Wealth, but from the Chymic Art of transmuting Metals? Besides the Egyptian Mines, which perhaps were afterwards discover’d, could yeild but little Profit, because of the vast Expence and Labour they must be at in Digging them. What farther seems to confirm their Knowledge in this misterious Art, is that, as Suidas reports, the Emperor Dioclesian upon his taking Alexandria, search’d with the utmost diligence for all these Chymical Books, written by the Ancients, and burn’d what he found, both to prevent the Egyptians growing thereby Rich and Rebelling against him. It was nevertheless thought, the Art of making Gold remain’d for some Time, among the Egyptians of the first Rank, at Colchis, and that by Jason’s Golden Fleece, was meant a Book of Chymistry written on Sheep-skin or Vellum, which he fetch’d from thence. However, at last this Art was lost, and perhaps for these following Reasons: |How the Egyptians Arts came to be lost.| First, Because the Egyptian Priests, who were Masters of all Sciences, conceal’d their Chymistry as much as might be, lest others, excited by their Happiness, might envy their Treasure, and consequently hasten their Ruin. Secondly, Because these Priests were so obstinate and resolute, they would rather chuse to suffer the greatest Tortures than discover their Art. Thirdly, In that their Chymical Books, &c. being written in secret Characters, and consequently understood by few, were laid up in Subterranean Vaults, or private Recesses of their Temples, for fear of the Incursions of their Enemies, thro’ which means some never came to light. And, Lastly, by reason of the hostile Invasions of the Persians, Ethiopians, Romans and others, who ransack’d the Temples of Memphis, Thebes and Alexandria, where these secret Arts were kept, burnt that famous Library of Ptolemy Philadelphus, which contain’d about 700000 Volumes, and destroy’d in like manner the Serapion. All this consider’d, we need not wonder if this, as well as their Art of Embalming, be lost. But ’tis farther to be noted, as their Chymistry was very profitable to them in making Gold and Silver, |The Art of tinging Glass and making Artificial Stones.| so in teaching them how to give beautiful Tinctures to Stones and Glass, as also Enamel, make Pastes, and the like, was equally curious and delightful. They were wont to make Drinking-Glasses, call’d [3]Allassontes, which would change colour like a Pidgeons Neck; one of which, as Vopiscus relates, being presented by an Alexandrian Priest to the Emperor Adrian, was esteem’d by him as a great Gift and rare Invention. They could likewise tinge the Lapis Obsidianus and Cyanos, with various beautiful Colours, as Pliny, Lib. 36. c. 26. and Lib. 37. c. 9. relates. Also Seneca Epist. XC. tells us Democritus, by being well acquainted with the Egyptians, discover’d how to soften Ivory, and by boiling a Stone, learn’d how to convert it into an Emerald; for those People are said to have made Gems so artificially, they imitated the natural both in lustre and hardness. Moreover, Appion Plistonices writes, there was to be seen in the Labyrinth of Egypt a Colossus of Serapis 9 Cubits high of an entire Emerald, which surely must have proceeded from a Chymical Operation, since neither of the Indies have hitherto been able to produce the like Rarity. By all this ’tis plain the antient Egyptians knew the more secret and profitable part of Chymistry, but whether that relating to Physic was practis’d by them, in the same manner as with us, is a Matter of some concern in Embalming, but, by reason of the scarcity of their Monuments or Books, not so easie to determine. Yet that they were not wholly ignorant thereof, appears by their Æs ustum, Ærugo, Alumen ustum, Diphryges, Misy, Sory, Nitre, Sal Armoniac, Salts latent in Ashes, Calcinations, and the like Operations which require the help of Fire; |The Art of Distilling, Calcining, &c.| as also in that they were acquainted with the Art of Distilling, whereby Bodies were made Incorporeal, rarify’d into Fumes, and afterwards kept from evaporating by help of Alembics, Matrasses and Retorts well luted to their Heads and Receivers. These Vessels were made of Glass, and some of them with their Figures have been describ’d by Zosimus, an antient Chymist of Panopolis, in his Book περὶ ὀργάνων καὶ καμίνων, from whence Olaus Borrichius had his Plate in his Book De Hermetis Ægyptiorum sapientia, p. 156. Now certainly, after all has been said, no Body will pretend to dispute the use of Chymical Preparations in Embalming, |Chymical Medicines useful in Embalming.| who has heard of the wonderful Effects of the Spiritus Solomonis, the Spiritus universalis Clauderi, the Spiritus Matricalis Blancardi, the Sal enixum Paracelsi, Sal mirabile Glauberi, Succinum liquidum Kerkringij, the Arcanum Bilsij, and other Chymical Spirits, Tinctures and Balsams, too many to be enumerated here, therefore I intend to describe them at large in my Pharmacopœia.

3. Ἀλλάσσοντες, i. Variantes, Sc. Calices, quod essent versicolores.

Surgery Invented and Improv’d in Egypt.

Surgery, which was another branch of their Physic, was, as Sanchuniathon asserts, invented by Æsculapius the Egyptian, first of that Name, Son of Jupiter, and Brother of Mercury, who reign’d at Memphis according to the report of Clemens Alexandrinus. After his Name several others were so call’d, who, in succeeding Ages, contriv’d any new Methods of dressing or binding up Wounds, or added any thing else which was curious to Surgery. This Art increas’d much in Egypt, as Celsus Lib. 7. Præf. witnesses; and Philoxenus, a very good Author, compos’d many Books thereof. Egypt also was the chief place famous for Surgery, insomuch that Cyrus King of the Persians, when he found no Remedy for a Disease in his Eyes, among his own Physicians and Surgeons, friendly besought Amasis King of Egypt, that he would send him an Oculist, whom he accordingly receiv’d with desir’d Success, as Herodotus in his Thalia acquaints us. Likewise both the Greeks and Romans, in case of necessity, requir’d and receiv’d the like Benefit from the Egyptians; but that their Surgery was so complete as ours is now, none will allow, nevertheless, this must be granted, that they had some Medicaments which we stand in need of; for Dioscorides, Lib. 5. c. 158. and Pliny, Lib. 36. c. 7. make mention of the Lapis Memphitis, which being powder’d and mix’d with Vinegar, they us’d to anoint any part with which they intended to Burn or Cut, and it so stupify’d it without any danger, that the Patient underwent the Operation almost without any Pain.

How useful in Embalming.

Surgery therefore being of that antiquity, and so well known by the Egyptians, ’twill be expected I should apply it to our Subject of Embalming: Wherefore, as was before mention’d, p. 177. there being several Persons employ’d to Embalm a Corps, as they were directed by the Physician, so one of those, to wit the Embalmer, we take to be properly a Surgeon, inasmuch as by understanding the nature of Fermentation and Putrifaction, both of the Juices and Blood, as also how to cure Mortifications in the Living, he might thereby be better enabl’d to prevent the like Qualities in the Dead. This he is likewise more capable of, by being well acquainted with Galenical and Chymical Medicines, and Anatomical Preparations and Experiments; in which Matters, seeing Physicians are generally most knowing, Santorellus thought it their Property, and consequently wrote a Book on this Subject, entitl’d, Post Praxis Medica, which shews what a Physician has to do after his Patient is dead, viz. To prescribe proper Remedies for Embalming him, as the Egyptian Priests or Physicians were wont to direct their Operators to do. So that ’tis plain, the true Office of the Physician was to prescribe, the Apothecaries to compound Medicines, anoint the Body, &c. and the Surgeons to Embalm and roul it up; |It teaches the Art of Bandage.| an Art which scarce any of our Moderns can equal, and perhaps I may have been the first that has imitated it, as Mr. Talman, one of our Masters of Anatomy, can witness I perform’d on the Body of Sir Robert Jeffrys, whom we Embalm’d.

A Surgeon the proper Embalmer.

He therefore whom the Egyptians call’d the Embalmer, was strictly speaking the Surgeon, for as much as the curing the Corps was to be perform’d by a manual Operation, and local application of Medicines, a Thing which requir’d much care, skill and dexterity, and which, a Person that is not as well acquainted with this, as Balsamic Medicines, can never perform as he ought, or be able to invent any new Method; whereas Frederic Ruysch, a good Physician, a great Anatomist and Reader of Surgery at Amsterdam, was well skill’d in this Art of Embalming, as his several Preparations of the Veins, Arteries, Uterus, &c. testifie, all which, Doctor Brown, President of the College of Physicians London, affirms he saw most accurately done at Ruysch’s House at Amsterdam, and which he particularly mentions in his Book of Travels, viz. The Lymphatic Vessels so preserv’d, that their Valves were very perspicuous, and the very minute Vessels of an excarn’d Liver clear and shining. He likewise says, he saw the Muscles of Children dissected and kept free from Corruption; as also an entire Body preserv’d, and the Face of one without the least spot, change of colour, or alteration of the Lineaments, from what might be expected after Death, and yet Ruysch had kept them Two Years, and hop’d so to continue them.

We have insisted the longer on Physic and its particular Branches, such as Anatomy, Chymistry, Surgery, &c. in as much as they not only teach how to prevent and cure Diseases, but likewise to Embalm dead Bodies. Yet seeing the Egyptians were famous in other Arts and Sciences, such as Painting, Carving, Architecture, Astronomy, Geometry and the Mathematics, some of which conduc’d very much to their Embalmings, and others to the erecting and compleating their Pyramids and Monuments; it may not be impertinent to enquire into those Arts, by which Egypt grew into such repute, that it was generally esteem’d, in respect to its Magnificence, |Egypt Mistress of the World, and Mother of all Arts and Sciences.| The Mistress of the World; to its Fertility, The Magazine or Store-House of the World; and to its Antiquity, The Origin, or Mother of all Arts and Sciences. This Digression I hope will be the more pardonable, in that it will be somewhat diverting to the Lovers of Art, and also help to give a true Notion of the several Ceremonies and great Expences us’d about their Embalm’d Bodies. |Egyptians their Antiquity.| We will first therefore begin with their Antiquity, for from thence we may expect the first Progress or Invention, tho’ perhaps not the Perfection of Arts; in which point the Egyptians would make us believe, the first Men were form’d in their Country, and give so great a number of their Kings, and so long a duration of their Reigns, as to deduce their Origin some Thousands of Years before the Creation of the World; asserting also that they were govern’d by the Gods about 25000 Years, before their Kingdom fell into the Hands of Men: But however questionable this Tradition may be, yet is it not to be doubted but the Egyptians were of very great Antiquity, and perhaps the antientest People of the World, from whom Laws, Arts, Sciences and Ceremonies were first deriv’d to other Countries. |Their Inventions.| Now the Inventions commonly attributed to them are, Geometry, Arithmetic, Music, Astrology, Physic, Necromancy or Sorcery, Carving, Painting, Enameling, Fluxing of Metals and Stones, curious Works in Glass, and making of fine Linnen, Mathematical Machines and Automata, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Engines, and various other Mechanical Curiosities; in a word, all kinds of Learning and Ingenuity, but more particularly they were the first Inventors of the Art of Embalming. Some of these we have already mention’d, therefore shall only speak of those not hitherto treated of. First then, The Thebans boast they were the most antient Philosophers and Astrologers, |Astrology.| as having found out the first Rules for the Improvement of those Sciences, since they most accurately observ’d the Courses of the Sun, Moon and Stars, their Eclipses, Constellations, Risings, Aspects and Influences, dividing thereby their Years into Months, and grounding their Divinations on their hidden Properties; yet did they so manage their Prognostications, that they could certainly foretel every particular Event.

Mathematics.

In the Mathematics and Mechanical Powers the Egyptians were particularly famous, for they had Engines whereby they could raise their Obelisques, and hoist up vast Stones to so incredible and prodigious a height as their Pyramids are. They also devis’d other wonderful Machines for divers purposes, as some for dreining Marshes, others for watering Gardens, of which Diodorus Siculus says, In the pensile Garden of Semiramis there was an Engine, that, thro’ certain Conduits or Conveyances from the Platform of the Garden, drew a great quantity of Water out of the River, yet no Body was the wiser or knew how it was done. A third sort of Machines they had for destroying and confounding their Enemy, with which last they had once almost reduc’d Julius Cæsar to extream despair, when he invested Alexandria with his whole Army; for as Aulus Hirtius, Writer of that War, relates, Ganymedes with Wheels and other Machines of great force, pump’d the Water out of the Sea, and threw it from high Places, with that great force and violence on Cæsar’s Men, that they thought of raising the Seige. He farther adds, That by those means he also made all their Water so salt they could not drink it. But besides these they had a sort of Water-Works for pleasure, as their Organa Hydraulica or Water-Organs, and others for measuring Time, as the Clepsydra or Water-Hour-Glass. They had likewise other Machines which mov’d with the Air or Wind, and some Automata that went by invisible Springs; for, as Cælius Rhodiginus relates, the Egyptians made some Statues of their Gods both to walk of themselves, and also to utter certain Words articulately. As to their Motion, that may be ascrib’d to some Wheels and Springs within, and their Voice or Speech, to some Air forc’d up thro’ Pipes plac’d in their Heads and Mouths. Kircher in Tom. 2. Oed. Ægyptiac. gives many Examples of Pneumatical Engines, among the Egyptians, in their Temples. Yet is there none so remarkable as the Statue of Memnon, which was made by the Theban Priests with that Art and Contrivance, that in the Morning, on the rising of the Sun, and the striking of its Beams upon it, it utter’d a kind of Music. This was so famous a piece of Work, that Men travell’d from far to see it. Lucian the Sophister went to view that Miracle, as he terms it, and as he tells us in his Philopseudes. The same did the Emperor Severus, as Spartianus informs us, and Germanicus, as Tacitus, and Strabo, that judicious Geographer, went to see it; the like did Apollonius Tyanæus, as Philostratus writes, which Matter need not seem fabulous, says Natalis Comes, to any that shall understand the Power of Art and Human Wit, nor how expert the Theban Priests were in all Mathematical Sciences. But I need say no more in particular of their Art of Building, Carving or Painting, |Their wonderful Works in Architecture.| since those will appear much more conspicuous by a Relation of such stupendious and beautiful Works as were the City of Thebes, together with its stately Sepulchres, Obelisks and Temples, all built by them. The Sepulchre of King Osymandua, the Cities of Memphis, Cairo, Babylon and Alexandria, the Tower of Pharos, the long Wall built by Sesostris, the Labyrinth, their Pyramids, Obelisks, Columns, Colossus’s, Statues, Sphinx’s, Monuments, Subterranean Vaults and Lamps, and other like admirable Works, testifie their extraordinary Skill and Ingenuity in all kinds of Arts to be such, as neither the Greeks, Romans, nor any other Nation were afterwards capable of. But that you may not, Sir, be put off with a bare enumeration of them, I will give such a particular account of them, as will, I dare say, not only surprise and divert the Reader, but also lead him into every minute Circumstance of their Embalming.

Thebes.

First then of Thebes, a very rich and glorious City, once the Regal Metropolis of all Egypt, and built by Busyris, who resided in it. It was call’d by the Egyptians Heliopolis, or the City of the Sun, and by Strabo, Diospolis, or Jupiter’s City, by reason he was there worshipp’d. It was in circuit about 140 Furlongs, or 17 Miles and an half, and was adorn’d with so many stately Monuments both of Gold, Silver and Ivory, such multitudes of Colossus’s and Obelisks, cut out of entire Stone, such exceeding splendid Temples, Palaces and Tombs of the old Egyptian Pharaohs, and other such like Ornaments and stupendious Rarities, that it was not only look’d upon to be the most beautiful and stately City of Egypt, but of all others in the World; for it is recorded, that not only King Busyris, but all his Successors also from Time to Time beautify’d and adorn’d it, and ’tis certain it had in it 20000 Chariots of War, and that there were 100 Stables all along the River, from Memphis to Thebes, towards Libya, each of which was capable of containing 200 Horses. Pomponius Mela says, Thebes was so exceeding Populous, it could draw out of every Gate 10000 armed Men, and that the Greek Word Hecatompolis, which as some think signifies an hundred Gates, according to which, Thebes was so call’d by Homer, is not to be understood literally, but rather to be explain’d to relate to an hundred Palaces, in which so many Princes had their Residence. Pliny, Lib. 36. c 14. will have the whole City to have stood upon Arches, so made on purpose, that the Egyptian Kings might march their Armies this way and that way under the Houses, without being discover’d. In this City were also four Temples, very wonderful for their beauty and largeness, of which, the most antient was 13 Furlongs, or above a Mile and half in circuit, and 45 Cubits high, and had a Wall 24 Foot thick. The Ornaments of this Temple were suitably magnificent both for Cost and Workmanship, and the Fabric continu’d ’till Diodorus Siculus’s Time, but the Silver, Gold, and other Ornaments of Ivory and precious Stones, were carry’d away by the Persians at such Time as Cambyses burn’d the Temples of Egypt. ‘Here, says Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. cap. 4. were the wonderful Sepulchres of the antient Kings of Egypt, which for State and Grandeur far exceeded all that Posterity could attain to even to this Day. The Egyptian Priests say, That in their Sacred Records there were register’d 47 of these Sepulchres, yet which is not only reported by the Egyptians, but by many of the Grecians likewise, who travel’d to Thebes in the Time of Ptolemeus Lagus, and wrote Histories of Egypt. Among these, one was Hecatæus, who agrees with what Diodorus relates, viz. That when he was there, which was in the 180th Olympiad, there remain’d only 17 of these Sepulchres. |Osymandua’s Tomb.| Of the first of these, that of King Osymandua was 10 Furlongs in compass, and at the entrance, they say, there was a Portico of vari-colour’d Marble, 45 Cubits in height and 200 Feet long. Thence going forward, you came into a four square Stone-Gallery, every Square being 400 Feet, supported by Beasts instead of Pillars, each of which was of an entire Stone, 16 Cubits high, and Carv’d after the antique manner. The Roof was also entirely of Stone, each Stone being 8 Cubits broad, with an azure Sky all bespangl’d with Stars. Passing out of this, you enter’d another Portico like the former, but more curiously carv’d, and adorn’d with greater variety. At the entrance stood 3 Statues, each of one entire Stone, being the Workmanship of Memnon of Scienitas. One of these was sitting, whose Foot measur’d 7 Cubits, and in the whole magnitude, exceeded all other Statues in Egypt. The other two were much less, reaching but to the Knee, the one standing on the right Hand, and the other on the left, being the Mother and Daughter. This Piece is not only commendable for its greatness, but likewise admirable for its Workmanship, and the excellency of the Stone, that in so great a Work there was not to be discern’d the least flaw or blemish. Upon the Tomb there was this Inscription:

‘I am Osymandua, King of Kings; if any would know how Great I am, and where I lye, let him excel me in any of my Works.

‘There was likewise at the second Gate another Statue, of the Mother by her self, of one Stone, 20 Cubits high; upon her Head were plac’d Three Crowns, to denote she was both Daughter, Wife and Mother of a King. Near this Portico, they say, there was another Gallery, more remarkable than the former, in which were various Sculptures representing his Wars with the Bactrians, who had revolted from him, against whom, ’tis said, he march’d with 400000 Foot and 20000 Horse, which Army he divided into four Bodies, and appointed his Sons Generals of the whole.

‘In the first Wall might be seen the King assaulting a Bulwark environ’d with the River, and fighting at the head of his Men, against some that made up against him, assisted by a Lion in a terrible posture; which some affirm must be understood to be a real Lion that the King bred up tame, went along with him in all his Wars, and by his great strength ever put the Enemy to flight. Others make this Construction, that the King being a Prince of extraordinary Courage and Strength, he was willing to set forth his own Praises and bravery of Spirit, by the representation of a Lion. In the second Wall were carv’d the Captives dragg’d after the King, represented without Hands and Privy Members, to signifie that they were effeminate Spirits, and had no Hands when they came to fight. The third Wall represented all sorts of Sculptures and curious Images, in which were set forth the King’s Sacrificing of Oxen, and his Triumphs in that War. In the middle of the Perystilion or Portico, open to the Air at top, was rear’d an Altar of polish’d Marble, being of excellent Workmanship, and equally to be admir’d for its Magnitude. In the last Wall were two Statues, each of entire Stone, 27 Cubits high, near which three Passages open’d out of the Portico into a stately Room, supported by Pillars, like a Theatre for Music. Every side of the Theatre was 200 Feet square. Here were many Statues of Wood, representing Pleaders and Spectators looking upon the Judges. Those which were carv’d on one of the Walls were 30 in number, and in the middle sat the Chief Justice, with the Image of Truth hanging about his Neck, his Eyes clos’d, and many Books lying before him. This signify’d that a Judge ought not to take any Bribes, but only to regard the Truth and Merits of the Cause. Next adjoyning was a Gallery full of diverse Apartments, in which were all sorts of delicate Meats ready serv’d up. Near this was represented the King himself, curiously carv’d and painted in glorious Colours, offering as much Gold and Silver to the Gods as he yearly receiv’d out of his Mines. The Sum was there inscrib’d (according to the rate of Silver) to amount unto 32 Millions of [4]Mina’s, which is about 100 Millions of Pounds Sterling. Next was the Sacred Library, on which were inscrib’d these words, The Cure of the Mind. Adjoyning to this were the Images of all the Gods in Egypt, to every one of which the King was making Offerings, peculiarly belonging to each of them, that Osiris and all his Associates, who were plac’d at his Feet, might understand his Piety towards the Gods, and his Righteousness towards Men. Next to the Library was a stately Room, wherein were 20 Beds to set upon, richly adorn’d, in which were the Images of Jupiter and Juno together with the Kings, and here it’s suppos’d the King’s Body lay interr’d. Round the Room are many Apartments, wherein are to be seen all the Beasts that are accounted Sacred in Egypt, very curiously painted. Thence you ascend to the top of the Monument or Sepulchre, which having mounted, there appears a Border of Gold round the Tomb of 365 Cubits in compass, and one in thickness; within the division of every Cubit were the several Days of the Year ingraven, with the natural Risings and Settings of the Stars, and their Significations, according to the Observations of the Egyptian Astrologers. In this manner they describe the Sepulchre of King Osymandua, which seems far to exceed all others both for Magnificence and curiosity of Workmanship.’ Now he who shall seriously consider this, as also several other Passages in Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus of the stupendious Works of the Egyptians, says Greaves in his Pyramidographia, p. 9. must needs acknowledge, that for Magnificence, if not for Art, they far exceeded the Grecians and Romans, even when their Empires were at the highest pitch and most flourishing: Wherefore those Admiranda Romæ, collected by Justus Lipsius, are hardly admirable, if compar’d with some of these. At this Day there is scarce any great Column or Obelisk remaining in Rome worthy of Note, which has not antiently been brought hither out of Egypt.

4. Every Mina is about 3l. 2s. 6d.

Thebes sunk and fell to decay, upon removing the Court to Memphis, |Memphis.| a great and eminent City, built by Uchoreus, as Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. relates, but Sandys says ’twas built by Ogdoo, and call’d Memphis after the Name of his Daughter, compress’d, as they feign, by Nilus in the likeness of a Bull. Hereupon this became the Regal City, and Strength and Glory of all Egypt, being exceeding Populous, and adorn’d with a world of Antiquities. It was particularly famous for the Temple of Apis, the Subterranean Vaults or Burying-Places, and the Pyramids or stately Sepulchres of the Kings, erected within a few Miles of it.

The God most esteem’d by the Egyptians, and ador’d at Memphis, |The God Apis.| was Apis, a coal-black Ox, with a white Mark on his Forehead, the figure of an Eagle on his Back, and having Hair on his Tail of two kinds. When this God happen’d to die, none valu’d their Hair, tho’, as Lucian says, they had as good as Nisus, but shav’d it all off in token of their Grief. Also Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. cap. 6. says, They were then as much concern’d, as at the Death of their own Children, and laid out in the Burial of this God, as much, if not more than all their Goods were worth; for when Apis thro’ old Age dy’d at Memphis, in the Reign of Ptolomeus Lagus, his Keeper not only spent all the Provision he had heap’d up, in burying him, but also borrow’d of Ptolomy 50 Talents of Silver for the same purpose. Nay even in our Time, says the same Author, some of the Keepers of these Sacred Creatures, have lavish’d away no less than 100 Talents, in maintaining them whilst alive. After the pompous Funeral of Apis was over, those Priests that had the charge of the Matter, sought out another Calf, which they substituted in its stead, with the same Marks as the former; and this pass’d for a great Miracle among them, but certainly it was not difficult for evil Spirits, who might take pleasure in deceiving these People, to represent to a Cow, when she went to Bull, an Ox with those Marks, as Jacob made the Goats and Sheep of the same colours, by placing speckl’d Rods before the Eyes of the Dams at the Time of their Coition. Thus, having found an Ox to their Mind, an end was immediately put to all further Mourning and Lamentation, and the young God was led by the Priests thro’ the City of Nilopolis, fed 40 Days, and afterwards put into a Barge, in a golden Cabbin, transported to Memphis, and plac’d in Vulcan’s Grove. For the Adoration of this Ox, they give this Reason, viz. That the Soul of Osiris pass’d into the Ox Apis, and consequently into all the rest that were successively substituted in his stead: |Sepulchre of Osiris.| But some say, the Members of Osiris, kill’d by Typhon, were thrown by Isis into an Ox made of Wood, and cover’d with Ox-Hides (from whence the City of Busiris took its Name;) and this, as it is reported, she did, because, as she was in search of her Husband, a very handsome Bull appear’d to her, which she believ’d to be him, and whom she afterwards caus’d to be Honour’d in Egypt, under the Figure of that Animal. Many other Things are fabulously reported of Apis, which would be too tedious to relate in particular; therefore I need only consider whether the Adoration and Worship of that Creature, came first in use from being the Sepulchre of Osiris, |Of Mycerinus’s Daughter.| or from the Account Herodotus in his Euterpe gives of the Daughter of Mycerinus, bury’d in like manner, which we shall here relate, viz. That one of the Egyptian Kings, Mycerinus by Name, seeing himself depriv’d of Heirs by the Death of his Daughter and only Child, spar’d nothing whereby he might express how sensibly he was touch’d with this Loss, and consequently indeavour’d to immortalize her Memory, by the most superb and sumptuous Structure he could possibly devise. Instead therefore of a Monument he order’d a Palace to be erected for her, with a great Hall in the midst of it, adorn’d with abundance of Figures and Statues, all glittering with precious Stones. After this, he caus’d her Corps to be deposited in a Coffin of incorruptible Wood, fashion’d after the likeness of an Ox, which was cover’d all over with Plates of Gold, and had a purple Mantle cast over it. The Figure of this Ox was kneeling, having a Sun of Massy Gold between his Horns, and being enlightn’d by a Lamp hanging before him, whose Flames were fed with a most odoriferous Oil. Round about the Hall stood Perfuming-Pans and Censers, which continually threw up clouds of sweet Scents and Perfumes. In another Parlour adjoyning to this, stood about 20 great Images, partly naked and carv’d in Wood, which as the Priests report were the Concubines of Mycerinus. But some there are who speak otherwise of this Ox and those Figures, viz. That Mycerinus falling in Love with his Daughter ravish’d her, who thereupon hanging herself for Grief, her Father bury’d her in this Ox, and the Servants who betray’d the Daughter, and slew the Mother, were represented by these Images, as having been accessary to such Wickedness. This Sepulchral Story, Porus has very well delineated in Porcachius, after the manner you’ll find represented in this first Plate. But to return to the City Memphis, said to have been in circuit about 20 Miles; Greaves tells us, there is not now so much as the Ruines of any such Place to be seen, altho’ Monsieur Thevenot affirms, those pretty near the Mummies, enclining towards the Nile, are doubtless the Ruines of that City, whose Inhabitants, even at this Day, in imitation of their Ancestors, bury their Dead without the Gates, and consequently make use of the Plain for a Burying-Place. Yet Sandys avers, ’tis not likely they should carry their Dead so far, when they have as convenient a place belonging to their City, and this is also agreeable to what some of the Ancients write, viz. |Subterranean Caves.| That on these Subterranean Caves the City Memphis, and several other Places thereabouts were built, as on so many Vaults or Arches. Without doubt they bury’d in both places, tho’ cheifly in the Plains of Egypt and Libya, where, in Caves and Grots under Ground, are said to be about 40 Sepulchres of their Kings. In these they were very curious, sparing no cost, but roofing them over like so many great Halls, and dividing them into several Apartments, with Passages out of one into the other, alotting also to each Family or Person, one suitable to his Quality and Expense he had been at in making them. These were like those Hypogea of the Greeks, or Cryptæ of the Romans, p. 95, 96. and are thus describ’d by Sandys, p. 103. Not far above Memphis, near the brow of the Libyan Desarts, and straitning of the Mountains, are the Sepulchres or Graves of the antient Egyptians, who have been there from the first inhabiting that Country, and who coveted that place of Burial, as suppos’d to contain the Body of Osiris. When discover’d, they are to be seen after this manner: By the removal of a certain square Stone (which is very close fitted, and cover’d over with Sand for privacy sake) a descent appears like the narrow mouth of a Well, with holes on each side of the Wall to descend by, yet which are so troublesome, that many, says Sandys, who go thither on purpose to see them, refuse to go down into them. Some of these are near 10 Fathom deep, leading into long Vaults, hewn out of Rocks, with Pillars of the same, and which seem to have belong’d to particular Families: Under every Arch lye the Bodies that have been Embalm’d, &c. Here also are several Pyramids and Obelisks to be seen, adorn’d with Hieroglyphical Inscriptions, which set forth the Riches and Power of those Kings; but these we shall more particularly treat of in another place, and therefore here only represent to you the Ichnography and Schenography of the antient Burial-Places of the Egyptians, near the Pyramids, out of which the Mummies are brought, with a Prospect of Memphis, Babylon, Cairo, &c. The Scituation and Disposition of these, I presume, will appear very plainly describ’d in this second Plate, taken out of Johannes Nardius, at the end of his Lucretius, with the Mistakes amended.

A. The Ruines of the antient City of Memphis.

B. The City of Babylon, now Grand Cairo.

C. The River Nile flowing from South to North.

D. A carv’d Stone the Cover of the Well.

E. The Well or Passage thro’ which they descended into the arch’d Chamber.

F. A Stone-Coffin carv’d with Hieroglyphicks, containing another of Wood mark’d G. which that it may be the better seen, is shown in another place, having an Image standing thereon, and some Tutelar Gods. At the Well or Passage E. a Servant holding by a Rope, descends with his Master upon his Shoulders, whom having set down at the bottom of the Well, he creeps upon his Belly through a Foramen at H. and then enters into a magnificent arch’d Chamber, in the middle of which is plac’d a Marble-Tomb, F. having a Mummy in it. Out of this, many Passages lead into other Chambers, which are so numerous and intricate, the way out is almost as difficult to find, as that of a Labyrinth.

From Memphis, the Court of the Egyptian Kings is said to have remov’d to Alexandria, and afterwards to Cairo; |Babylon.| but in respect that Babylon, now Cairo, lies opposite to Memphis, as is seen at Letter B, and this second Plate thereby better describ’d, I will begin with that first. This, in opposition to the great City of Babylon in Chaldæa, built by Semiramis, was also for distinction sake call’d the Egyptian Babylon: It is said to have been founded by Cambyses the Persian Monarch, the first that made this Kingdom stoop to the Yoke of a Foreign Power, and was by him peopled with some Babylonians or Chaldæans transplanted thither. It stood at some distance towards the South of Cairo, where now appear nothing hardly but great Mountains of Ruines, among which many of the Christian Temples and Monasteries lye in rubbish. The Castle hereof serv’d long after for a Garrison of three Legions, appointed to defend this Country in the Time of the Romans. Adjoyning to this Castle are Store-Houses, |Granaries of Joseph.| suppos’d to be of the Granaries of Joseph, which, as they say, he built, and therein laid up Corn against the ensuing Famine. In all they were seven, but now three only are standing, which are also employ’d to the same use: From hence, for the space of 20 Miles up the River, there are nothing but Ruines.

Old Cairo.

From the Ruines of this City, Babylon, Old Cairo was rais’d, being heretofore a most stately City, but now in a manner desolate, having been alter’d several Times, as the Conquerors or Lords of the Country thought fit. At length a more convenient and pleasant place of Abode was pitch’d upon, when about half a League off the Old, |New Cairo.| they built New Cairo, which for a long Time has been, and at present is, the chief City or Metropolis of all Egypt. The Italians call it Alcairo, and others, by way of Excellency, Grand Cairo. It is scituate on the East side of Nile, in a very pleasant Plain, at the foot of the rocky Mountain Muccat, winding therewith, and representing the form of a Crescent. It stretches, says Sandys, p. 92. South and North, with the adjoyning Suburbs, five Italian Miles, and is in breadth scarce one and a half where it is broadest; but as to the bigness or circumference of this City, Authors differ very much, because some will have it consist of four Parts, viz. Old Cairo, New Cairo, Boulac and Charafat, which, if we compare with London, the City of Westminster and Borough of Southwark, we shall find it at least three times bigger. For it is said, the parts of Cairo, together with its Suburbs, are 10 or 12 Leagues in length, 7 or 8 in breadth, and 25 or 30 in circuit, and yet is this City so exceeding Populous, that the People pass to and fro in throngs, altho’ the Women, according to the Custom of that Country, seldom or never appear abroad. Once in seven Years ’tis visited with a terrible Pestilence, insomuch that 1000 or 1500 have dy’d in a Day, nevertheless, if not above 300000 die within the Year, the City is reckon’d to be in good Health, and there is hardly any miss of the Deceas’d. There are said to be in it 18000 Streets, 23000 Mosques, and 200000 Houses, besides several Markets, Exchanges, Hospitals, and other magnificent Structures. Every Street is known by its Name, and fortify’d with a great Gate at each end, which at Night, to prevent Tumults and Uproars, are lock’d up with wooden Locks, and open’d with a Key of the same; for here all the Locks and Keys, even of the City Gates themselves, which are plated with Iron, are made only of Wood. The number of Men, which every Night guard this City, is 28000. There is a Canal or Khalis, as they call it, which runs the whole length of the City, and conveys thro’ it Water from the Nile. At the South end it is fortify’d with a stately Castle (the Palace of the Mamaluke Sultans) scituate on the top of a Mountain, overlooking the City and a great part of the Country. It is so large it seems a City of it self, environ’d with high Walls, divided into Partitions, and enter’d by Doors of Iron, and has within it spacious Courts, which in Time past were the places of Exercise. Now the Ruines of those antient Buildings only show how sumptuous they have formerly been, for there are Pillars of solid Marble yet standing, of so immense a Magnitude, that how they came thither is not the least to be wonder’d at. ’Tis not therefore without reason that this City was nam’d Grand Cairo, which is reported in great measure to be encompass’d with a Wall, and in which, says Thevenot, there are so many curious Things to be seen, that a very large Book might be fill’d with the relation of them. Among some of the extraordinary Things to be seen at Cairo, |The Hatching of Chickens.| is the artificial way of Hatching Chickens, upon which the aforesaid Author well observes, it might be thought a Fable to relate that Chickens are to be hatch’d without Hens sitting upon the Eggs, and yet a greater to say, that Chickens are sold by the Bushel, nevertheless they are both true. To effect this, they put their Eggs into Ovens, and heat them with a temperate warmth, which imitates so well the natural heat, that Chickens are form’d and hatch’d in them; but for the particular manner of this, I must refer you to Thevenot in his Travels, p. 144. where it is to be found more plainly describ’d. To Cairo are brought, over Land by the Caravan from Mecca, all sorts of Perfumes, Aromatics, precious Stones and Gums, |Drugs brought by the Caravan.| such as Olibanum, Frankinsence, Mastic, Myrrh, Amber and Opobalsamum, also Indian Stuffs, Indico, and other rich and valuable Commodities. The Caravan consists of many Thousands of Pilgrims, that Travel yearly to Mecca, out of Devotion and for Traffic. That City is distant from Cairo 40 easie Days Journey, separated by a Wilderness of Sand, that lies in drifts, and is often dangerous to the Traveller, when mov’d by the Wind, thro’ which he is guided in many places by the Stars only, as Ships are in the Ocean. The whole Caravan has above 1000 Horses, Mules and Asses, and 500 Camels. These are the Ships of Arabia, and their Seas are the Desarts. The City of Mecca, Capital of Arabia Fælix, lying near the Red Sea, is a Place of great Traffic, not only by reason of the Indian Caravans, that repair thither yearly with their Commodities, but also of the Country adjoyning, whose precious Productions have procur’d it the Name of Happy. From hence they go to Medina Talnabi, or the City of the Prophet, where in a little Chappel, lighted by 3000 Lamps that burn there perpetually, lye Mahomet, Omer and Haly, in plain Tombs of the antique Fashion, cut out like Lozenges. That of Mahomet (not hanging in the Air as is reported) is cover’d with green, having on the side a Carbuncle as big as an Egg, which yields a marvellous Lustre. These meet again the rest of the Caravan at the place appointed, as Sandys, p. 97. tells us, who gives the foregoing Account.

Five Miles North-East of the City Cairo, lyes a Village call’d El Matharia, |Matarea.| where, in a Garden, is preserv’d the Balsam Plant as a great Rarity: |The Balsam Plant.| Some falsly attribute the natural Production of it to this Country, and some to other Places, tho’, truly speaking, ’tis brought from Mecca in Arabia Fælix, beyond the Red Sea, by the Turkish Pilgrims when they go to visit Mahomet’s Tomb, and so has been cultivated in several Places, and renew’d by the same means whenever it dy’d. Thus the Balsam Plant grew and prosper’d in Judæa, as is attested by Theophrastus, Pliny, Justin, and many more; nay by Galen also, who purposely travel’d into Palæstin to see and learn the Virtues of this Balsam of Syria; likewise from the Story of Cleopatra, who obtain’d some Plants of Balsam from Herod the Great, to transplant in Egypt. Yet that this Plant was not in Judæa before the Time of Solomon, that great Collector of Vegetable Rarities, appears from the Account of Josephus, who relates how the Queen of Sheba, a part of Arabia, brought, among other Presents to that King, some Plants of the Balsam-Tree, as one of the most valuable Things in her Country; whereby it appears it was not an original Native Plant of Judæa, and others affirm also that it had not its natural Growth there, utterly denying it was peculiar to that Country, or only to be seen in two Gardens about Jericho. We are to rely chiefly on the Credit and Authority of Joannes Veslingius and Prosper Alpinus, who rightly conclude the natural and original Place of this Plant to be in Arabia, about Mecca and Medina, where it still plentifully grows, and Mountains abound therewith. From hence it has been carefully transported, by the Basha’s of Grand Cairo, to the Garden of Matarea, where, when ever it dies, it is renew’d from those parts of Arabia where it grew, from whence the Grand Signior yearly receives a Present of Balsam from the Xeriff of Mecca, still call’d by the Arabians Balessan, and whence ’tis suppos’d the Greek Apellative Balsam arose. The Shrub, which produces this Liquor, is about two Cubits high, with few Leaves, like to those of Rue, always green, and somewhat inclining to white, yet which fall not off in Winter. The Wood is gummy, cleaving to the Fingers, and outwardly of a reddish colour, with Branches of the same that are long, streight, slender and odoriferous, with a few Leaves disorderly plac’d, sometimes three, five or seven together, after the manner of the Mastic-Tree: It bears a few small white Flowers, like Acatia or the Egyptian Thorn, which are of a pleasant scent, but fade in a little Time. After the Blossoms follow yellow fine scented Seeds, inclos’d in a reddish black Bladder, very sweet, and containing a yellowish Liquor like Honey: They are bitterish and a little tart on the Tongue, and of the same shape and bigness with the Fruit of the Turpentine-Tree, in the middle thick, and at the ends pointed. The Juice call’d Opobalsamum, drops in the Summer-Time from the slit of the insected Bark, which no sooner comes into the Air but it turns whitish, afterwards green, then of a gold colour, and lastly becomes paler. When ’tis first dropp’d ’tis clear, but instantly turns thick and cloudy, and when old grows like Turpentine. ’Tis at first of so strong a Smell, that in many it causes the Head-Ach, and in some a sudden bleeding at the Nose; but this strong and sharp Savour at length changes into a pleasant Scent, which in old Balsam is so weak that you can hardly discover any Smell at all.

There is another sort of Balsam brought from Cairo, in Flasks and Leather-Bottles, which is very odoriferous, yet not the pure Liquor or Gum issuing from the Bark of the aforesaid Tree, but drawn out of the Wood and green Branches by boyling. Another sort is press’d out of the Seeds, and many times sold for the right, tho’ not so strong scented nor so bitter in Taste. There is no Medicine more generally us’d by the Egyptians than the True Balsam, which they esteem a kind of Panacea for all Diseases, both external and internal, curing therewith divers sorts of Wounds, as also the bitings of venomous Creatures. They use it moreover as a Preservative against the Plague, and to drive away Agues or Fevers that proceed from Putrifaction. The Seeds and green Branches, are likewise us’d against all Distempers that the Balsam it self is: The same Virtue is ascrib’d to the Wood; but the Balsam, term’d by the Greeks, Opobalsamum, is the strongest, the Seed or Carpobalsamum more gentle, and the Wood or Xylobalsamum the weakest of all. But the chief Use of the Balsam for our Purpose, is preserving the dead Bodies of Kings and Princes; from which Quality, and on account of its Analogy with Embalming, the Art it self deriv’d its Name from it, as we shall show hereafter, when we come to speak of its Etymology: Its other Virtues, which are very many, together with a more general Description of it, the manner of extracting the Liquor, and the true signs of its Goodness when unsophisticated, I intend to treat of more fully in my Pharmacopœia, in the Chapter of Balsams, &c. therefore shall here only insert the Draft of this Plant, which is very scarce, taken out of Prosper Alpinus de Plantis Ægyptiacis, and represented in our third Plate.

We come next, according to the Method propos’d, to speak of Alexandria, |Alexandria.| so call’d from Alexander the Great, who built this City upon a Promontory, thrusting it self into the Sea, by which on the one side, and the Lake Mareotis on the other, it is exceeding well defended. Here Alexander built himself a large and stately Palace of admirable Workmanship, and all the succeeding Kings of Egypt so enlarg’d and beautify’d this City, some with Ports and Arsenals, and others with magnificent Temples, and such like rich Donations, that it was then judg’d by many to be second, if not the first City of the World; being exceeding Populous, and plentifully provided with all sorts of Provisions and other Necessaries. Diodorus Siculus tells us, when he was there, he was inform’d by those that kept the Rolls of the Inhabitants Names, that there were above 300000 Freemen, and the King receiv’d above 6000 Talents yearly Revenue. This City Alexander peopl’d with Greeks, immediately upon his Conquest of Egypt, and some of his Successors had their Residence here for 900 Years. This was the Metropolis of Egypt before Grand Cairo was built; but Alexandria is now so ruinous, says Thevenot, that many Strangers ask where it is even when they are in the middle of it, yet are there such fair remains among the Ruines, as shew it to have been a wonderful Place. One of the finest Things, now to be seen there, are the Walls, which, tho’ ruin’d, are so Magnificent, one must needs confess they have been matchless. These Walls are strengthn’d with stately ranks of Pillars, and have 118 great square Towers, with a little one betwixt every two, nay, they are so neatly contriv’d, that there are stately Casemates underneath, which may serve for Galleries and Walks: In each Tower there is a large square Hall, the Vault whereof is supported by great Pillars of Thebaic Stone; there are a great many Chambers above, and over all a large Platform, above 20 Paces square. In short, all these Towers are so many Palaces, able to contain 200 Men each. The Walls are several Foot thick, and have every-where Port-holes in them, and formerly encompass’d the antient Town, fortify’d by such Towers. Next to the Walls, the finest piece of Antiquity that has withstood the rage of Time, is the Pillar of Pompey, |Pompey’s Pillar.| scituate about 200 Paces from the City, upon an Eminence or little Hill, whereby it is seen at a great distance: This Pillar stands on a square Pedestal seven or eight Foot high, and each Face about 14 Foot over; the Pedestal is fix’d on a square Base about half a Foot high and 20 broad, made of several Stones cemented together. The Body of the Pillar consists only of one Stone, which some believe to be of Granit; but Thevenot and others affirm, ’tis a sort of Cement, which, in process of Time, grew into Stone, or else was cast on the spot, for ’tis aver’d for truth, the Ancients had the Secret of casting Stones. But others absolutely deny this Stone was so made, affirming the antient Egyptians got these Pillars and Obelisks, that are to be seen at so many places in Italy, at Saide, where they pretend many have been cut out and brought by Water down the Nile: If this be true, what extraordinary Barks or Water Carriages must they have had, to bring so great a weight, and in so large a bulk, as was that of this Pillar, nay, what Engins to raise it on its Pedestal? Thevenot says, No Artificer could be found that would undertake to remove it to another place, and that it is 120 Foot high, but Le Bruyn, who measur’d it, found it to be but 90, yet as much as six Men could grasp round, which, according to his Calculation is 38 Feet. On the top is a fine Chapiter, proportionable to the bigness of the Pillar, but made of a distinct piece of Stone. ’Tis said Julius Cæsar erected this Pillar in memory of the Victory he obtain’d over Pompey.

Cæsar’s Palace.

At some Paces distant is Cæsar’s Palace, but all ruin’d, says Thevenot, except some Pillars of Porphiry that are now entire and standing, yet the Frontispiece is still pretty sound, being a very lovely piece of Architecture. About 80 Paces wide of Pompey’s Pillar is a Khalis or Canal of the Nile, dug by the antient Egyptians to bring Water to Alexandria, which has no other to drink. This, when the Nile swells and breaks down a Bank, fills the Cisterns that are purposely made under the City, and which are very magnificent and spacious; for Alexandria is all hollow underneath, being an entire Cistern, whose Vaults are supported by several fair Marble-Pillars, and upon these Arches the Houses are built. Now this Water of the Nile, so convey’d by the Khalis under the Town, is by Wheels, with Earthen Pitchers or Buckets, drawn up into the private Cisterns of each House. There are likewise to be seen at Alexandria two very stately Obelisks of Theban Marble, intermix’d or speckl’d with Veins of various colours: One of these remains entire, but so sunk into the Earth, that it appears without a Pedestal. The other is quite bury’d in the Ground, except the Pedestal only, which is about 10 Foot high; each of these are of one entire Stone, 100 Foot in height and eight in breadth, suppos’d to be larger than those at Rome, and mark’d with such like Hieroglyphical Figures.

Palace of Cleopatra.

Near these Pillars or Obelisks are the Ruins of Cleopatra’s Palace, by whose stately Chambers or Apartments, in some part remaining entire, it may reasonably be conjectur’d, it was a very superb and magnificent Building, as likewise by some remains, still to be seen on the Sea-side, of a Gallery supported by many fair Pillars, and running outwards to the Mouth of the Harbour, so that any one might embark there from the Palace. Thevenot tells us, in his Travels to the Levant, p. 125. that this City abounds with Marble, Porphiry and Thebaic Stone or Granit, as also that among the Ruins, there are several very curious Stones to be found, such as Agats, Garnets, Emeralds, &c. like to Medals, some engrav’d with Heads, others with Idols, and some with Beasts, all being different from each other, and serving heretofore for Talismen or Charms. These are so excellently well wrought, that certainly nothing now-a-days can come up to them, whereby it appears either their Engravers were wonderful Artists, or else they had the Art of casting, or at least of softning Stones; for tho’ some of these are so small one can hardly finger them, yet are they nevertheless all engrav’d or otherwise wrought to perfection.

This City of Alexandria was likewise very famous for its Academies or Colleges, endow’d with large Revenues, and planted with such Persons as were eminent in Liberal Sciences, who were drawn thither by Rewards, and cherish’d by Favours, thro’ which means Alexandria became the Parnassus of the Muses, and the School of all good Literature. The chiefest and most memorable Place of all these was the Serapion, |The Serapion.| or Temple of the God Serapis, for sumptuous Workmanship and magnificent Building inferior to none but the Roman Capitol. It had a curious Portico of a Mile in length, whereto adjoyn’d a Court of Justice and a Grove: In this last, the Followers of Aristotle’s Doctrine had a peculiar School, whereof the Alexandrians, as Eusebius and Nicephorus write, would needs impose the Charge on Bishop Anatolius, for his extraordinary Knowledge in all Arts. St. Mark the Evangelist was here first Divinity-Professor, whose Successor erected a School for Theology, wherein, for the advancement of the Christian Religion, several of the most learn’d Men were appointed Readers, who scholastically handled the main and fundamental Points only: Among these was Pantænus, who read both Divinity and Philosophy to all such as came to hear him, which, as it is conceiv’d, gave the first hint to the instituting of Universities throughout the rest of Christendom, insomuch that, from so small a beginning, the Schools of Alexandria became so great and eminent, that Nazianzen gave them the Title of Παντοίας παιδεύσεως ἐργαστήριον, The Shops or Workhouses of all Learning. Here also St Jerom, St. Basil, St. Gregory and others were educated, and Philo-Judæus likewise became eminent, for in this Academy the Jews had a flourishing and populous Synagogue; but what greatly encreas’d the glory of this Assembly, was that most wonderful Library of Ptolemy Philadelphus, |Library of Ptolemy.| Son of Ptolemeus Lagus, the second of that Name of the Line of the Egyptian Kings, first establish’d by him, and afterwards augmented and enrich’d by his Successors; for this King being an exceeding Lover of all Arts and Sciences, he, with great Labour and much Expence, made a Collection of all manner of Books, as well in Divinity as in all Arts, Sciences, History, and the like, some of which he obtain’d from Greece and other places, but the Pentateuch, and the rest of the Old Testament, he procur’d from Judæa. Then wrote this King to Eleazer the High Priest, to send him six out of every Tribe to Translate this Book for the common Use. These Ptolemy receiv’d at Alexandria with exceeding great civility, and erected several convenient Mansions for them, wherein every one was by himself to Translate the Holy Law, which they so perform’d, according to the Testimonies of Josephus, Clemens Alexandrinus, Eusebius Nicephorus, St. Austin, and other learned Writers, that they not only us’d the same Sense, but the very same Words also, yet that certainly not without the special Grace and Assistance of the Holy Spirit. Now this is the Translation which bears the Name of Septuagint to this very Day. |The Septuagint.| Moreover, this King sent to the Chaldeans, Romans and other Nations for Books, all which he likewise commanded to be Translated into the Greek Tongue. One Phalerius Demetrius, a Learned Athenian Exile, was Keeper of this Library, which amounted, as Agellius, Ammianus Marcellinus and Diodorus Siculus alledge, to 700000 Volumes, and was afterwards from Time to Time very much augmented by the succeeding Kings, ’till at length this invaluable Treasure of Manuscripts (for then the Art of Printing was not so much as thought of) was burn’d in the Civil Wars between Pompey and Cæsar, in the 183 Olympiad, after it had continu’d about 124 Years. This Cæsar ever after accounted the greatest of his Misfortunes, that he, who was so great a Lover of Arts and Sciences, should be Cause of the destruction of so incomparable and unparalel’d a Library.

The Serapion Library.

Another Library was afterwards erected by Cleopatra in the Serapion, a Building of great Excellency and wonderful Art: This was greatly adorn’d and enrich’d by the assistance of Marc Anthony, who acquir’d the Attalian and Pergamæan Libraries, and which continu’d during the Time of the Primitive Christianity; when, in the Days of Theodosius the Great, it was demolish’d, as a harbour of Infidelity. Among other remarkable Places in this City of Alexandria, was the Seraglio call’d Somia, belonging to the Palace, famous for its being the Burial-Place of the Ptolemys, and of Alexander the Great, |Alexander’s Sepulchre.| whose Body lay here inclos’d in a Sepulchre of Gold; but Cybiosactes despoil’d it of that precious Cover, after which, it was cover’d with Glass, and so remain’d to the Time of the Saracens, as Sandys, p. 87. informs us. Now since the Burial of Alexander the Great was manag’d, in all respects, suitably to his Grandeur, whereby it not only exceeded all others in regard of Expence, State and Pomp, but also in point of curiosity of Workmanship, Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 18. cap. 3. thought fit to recommend to Posterity these remarkable and entertaining Matters concerning it, viz. That to Aridæus, Bastard Son of Philip, and Brother of Alexander, whom he succeeded, the care of his Funeral, and preparing a Chariot to convey his Body to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, was commited. First therefore he provided a Coffin of beaten Gold, wrought in form and proportion to his Body: This he fill’d with Aromatic Spices, as well to delight the Senses, as to preserve the Corps from Putrifaction, and then fitted it exactly with a Cover of Gold, which again was over-spread with a purple Pall, embroider’d with Gold, and near it were plac’d the Arms of the Deceas’d, thereby to represent the Acts of his Life. Then were these plac’d in a Chariot under a Triumphal-Arch of Gold, beset with precious Stones, and supported by Pillars and Chapiters of Gold also, made after the Ionic Order. On each side the Arch stood a Golden Image of Victory bearing a Trophy, and on the top was a Gold-Fringe of Net-Work, from which hung Bells so large, that they might be heard at a great distance. Under this Portico or Arch was plac’d a four square Throne of Gold, adorn’d with little Coronets of various beautiful Colours. On every side of this Arch, from a Net-Work of Gold, a Finger thick, hung four Tables or Pannels, whereupon were pourtray’d all sorts of Creatures. In the first Table was represented Alexander sitting in a Chariot, with a Royal Scepter in his Hand, his Armour-Bearer before him, and his Life-Guards, compleatly arm’d, round about him. In the second follow’d Elephants, adorn’d in their proper Habiliments, on which sat Indians before, and Macedonians behind, arm’d according to the Customs of their respective Countries. In the third might be seen Squadrons of Horse drawn up in Battalia; and in the fourth appear’d a Fleet order’d in a Line of Battel. At the entrance into this Arch were plac’d Golden Lions, looking sternly towards those that should offer to enter. On the out-side of the Arch, and middle of the Roof, was plac’d on a purple Carpet, a Crown of Gold, so large, that by the reflection of the Sun-Beams, it darted such an amazing splendor and brightness, that at a distance it appear’d like a flash of Lightning. The whole Work was set upon two Axel-Trees, the ends of which were likewise of Gold, representing Lions Heads with Darts in their Mouths. The whole Machine was mov’d by four Wheels, whose Spokes and Naves were also over-laid with Gold, and there were four Poles to draw it by, to each of which were yok’d 16 of the largest and finest Mules that could be got, in all 64. Every Mule was adorn’d with a Crown of Gold, Bells of Gold on either side their Heads, and rich Collars about their Necks, set off and beautify’d with precious Stones. After this manner did the Chariot set forth, the sight of which was more stately and pompous than can be imagin’d, so that its Fame brought together Multitudes of Spectators; for the People out of every City, whither it was coming, met it, and then ran back again before it, never satisfy’d with the delight they took in gazing on it; and, suitable to so stately a Show, attended a vast company of Workmen and Pioneers to clear the way for its Passage. Thus Aridæus (who spent two Years in Preparations for it) brought the King’s Body from Babylon to Egypt. Ptolemy, in Honour to this great King, met the Corps with his Army as far as Syria, where he receiv’d and accompany’d it with great Respect and Observance; for he had resolv’d not to conduct it to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, but to keep it in this City which Alexander had built, being the most famous almost of any in the World. For this end he built a Temple in Honour of Alexander, in greatness and stateliness of Structure, becoming the Glory and Majesty of so great a King; and in this Repository laid the Body, and honour’d his Exequies with Sacrifices and magnificent Shows, agreeable to the State of a Demi-God: Thus much for the glorious Sepulchre and Burial of the greatest Monarch perhaps that ever liv’d. Next we shall take notice of two Physiological Observations on the Earth and Water of Egypt, made by Father Vansleb in his Voyage thither, p. 109. 111. where, speaking of Alexandria, he tells us the Earth thereabouts is full of Nitre, which is easily prov’d by the following Experiment, viz. That if you take a piece of Earth and set it in the hot Sun, it will become white as Snow on that side that is towards the Sun. Also in the Grand Signior’s Salt-Pits, that are out of this City, near the Khalis or Chanel of Cleopatra, he took notice of two things very remarkable: First, That the Water of Nile, the sweetest and freshest in the World, makes a Salt, not only whiter than ordinary, but likewise very excellent. Secondly, That this Salt has the taste of Violets. The last thing, but not the least, that I have to say of Alexandria, |Isle of Pharos.| is concerning the famous Isle of Pharos, which stands over-against the City, and was formerly a Mile distant from the Land, but joyn’d to the Continent by Cleopatra, on the following occasion, says Heylin, p. 849. The Rhodians, then Lords of the Sea, us’d to exact some Tribute or Acknowledgement from every Island within those Seas, and consequently from this: Their Embassadors, upon this Occasion, sending to Cleopatra to demand this Tribute, she deferr’d it for seven Days, under pretence of celebrating a Solemn Festival, but in the mean Time, by raising huge Dams and Banks in the Sea, both with incredible charge and speed, she united the Island to the Shoar, which finish’d, she sent away the Rhodians empty-handed, with this witty Jeer, That they were to take Toll of the Islands, and not of the Continent. A Work of great rarity and magnificence this, both for its extent, taking up the space of seven Furlongs, and thence call’d Heptastadium, and the incredible speed wherewith it was finish’d. Upon a Promontory hereof, on a Rock, environ’d by the Sea, Ptolemy Philadelphus caus’d a Watch-Tower to be built for the benefit of Sailors, (the Seas upon that Coast being very unsafe and full of Flats) to guide them over the Bar of Alexandria. This Pharos or Watch-Tower was of wonderful height, ascended by Steps, and having many Lanthorns at the top, wherein Lights burn’d nightly, as a Direction to such as sail’d by Sea; yet oftentimes the multitude of Lights appearing a far off as one, and being mistaken for a Star, procur’d contrary effects to the promis’d Safety. This had the repute of the Worlds seventh Wonder, call’d after the Name of the Island, and is at this Day a general Name for such Towers as serve to that purpose. The Materials of it were white Marble, and the chief Architect Sostratus of Gnidos, who grav’d upon it this Inscription: Sostratus of Gnidos, Son of Dixiphanes, to the Gods Protectors for the safeguard of Sailors. This Inscription he cover’d over with Plaister, and inscrib’d thereon the Name and Title of the King, Founder of this Tower, to the end that when the King’s Name should be wasted and wash’d away, his own, which was cut on Marble, might be celebrated to Eternity.

To the South side of the City of Alexandria, near the Lake Mareotis, wherein the Sepulchres of King Mœris and his Wife were Pyramidically built, adjoins the Labyrinth, |The Labyrinth.| not much inferior to that Structure, as will appear from that Description given by Sandys, p. 88. where he tells us, ‘That in the midst of this Labyrinth were 37 Palaces, belonging to the 37 Jurisdictions of Egypt; to which resorted the several Presidents to celebrate the Festivals of their Gods (who had herein their particular Temples, moreover 15 Chapels, containing each a Nemesis) and also to advise of Matters of Importance relating to the Public Good. The Passages thereunto were thro’ Caves of a miraculous length, full of dark and winding Paths, and Rooms within one another, having many Doors to confound the Memory and distract the Intention, and leading into inextricable Error: Now mounting aloft, and then again re-descending, not seldom turning about Walls infolded within each other, in the form of intricate Mazes, not possible to thred or get out of without a Conductor. The Building was more under Ground than above, being all of massy Stone, and laid with that Art, that neither Cement nor Wood was us’d in any part of the Fabric. The end at length being attain’d, a pair of Stairs of 90 Steps, conducted into a stately Portico, supported by Pillars of Theban Marble, and this again gave entrance into a spacious Hall, the place of general Conventions. All this Hall was of polish’d Marble, and adorn’d with Statues both of Gods and Men. The Chambers were so dispos’d, that upon their opening, the Doors gave Reports no less terrible than Thunder. The first Entrance was of white Marble within, adorn’d throughout with Marble Columns, and divers Figures.’ Dedalus is said to have imitated this, in that Labyrinth he built in Crete, yet expressing hereof scarce the Hundredth part; for, as Heylin observes, it fell as short of the Glories of this, as Minos was inferior to Psammiticus (the Founder) in Power and Riches. ‘Whoso mounted the top, should see as it were a large Plan of Stone, and withal, those 37 Palaces environ’d with solid Pillars, and Walls consisting of Stone of a mighty size. At the end of this Labyrinth stood a square Pyramid of a marvelous breadth and answerable height, being the Sepulchre of King Ismandes that built it.’ |By whom, and to what end built.| But who built this Labyrinth, and to what end, Authors differ very much, and Pliny, who writes a great deal of it, gives no certain Reason why it was made. ’Tis said it was first built by King Petesucus or Tithoes, altho’ Herodotus affirms ’twas the Work of all the Kings, and lastly of Psammiticus. The cause of building it is as variously reported: Demoteles thinks it to have been the Palace of Motherudis; Lycias, that it was the Sepulchre of Mœris (of which Opinion is also Diodorus) but most believe ’twas built as sacred to the Sun. Bellonius thinks it to have been a Sepulchre rather than any thing else, for such like magnificent Works, as was also the Mausoleum, were commonly rais’d for that end, and Herodotus clearly describes this wonderful Labyrinth to have been built for a Sepulchre, telling us, ‘The Kings of Egypt, where they perform’d their Sacred Rites, resolv’d to leave a common Monument of themselves, therefore in that Place, which is a little above the Lake of Mœris, and near the City of Crocodiles, they built a Labyrinth, which Herodotus himself saw, and which he says was much bigger than Fame had represented it; for if any one should reason with himself about the Walls and nature of this Work, according to the Narration of the Greeks, he would never conceive the Labour and Charge of this Labyrinth. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus is very well worth mentioning, yet are the Pyramids far greater, the least of which equals the largest Labour of the Grecians; and tho’ this Labyrinth likewise excels them, yet does the Lake Mœris, near which it is built, and the Description of which you have at p. 141. afford much greater admiration.’ The former of these, viz. the Labyrinth, is said to have been for the Sepulchre of those Kings that built it, and for the Sacred Crocodiles; and the latter to contain the Sepulchres of King Mœris and his Wife.

The Wall built by Sesostris.

Not to describe particularly that prodigious Wall built by Sesostris, which defended the East side of Egypt, against the Irruptions of the Syrians and Arabians, being 1500 Furlongs in length, and extending from Pelusium by the Desart as far as Heliopolis; we come next to speak of those famous Walls belonging to the City of Babylon in Chaldea, built by Semiramis the Wife of Ninus, a Princess, who being naturally of an high aspiring Spirit, was ambitious of excelling all others in glorious Actions. So soon therefore as she had bury’d her Husband Ninus, |Ninus his Sepulchre.| King of Assyria, in the Royal Palace, and rais’d over him a Mound of Earth of wonderful bigness, which as Ctesias reports, standing at some distance from the City that lay in the Plain, appear’d like a stately Cittadel, being 9 Furlongs high and 10 broad: She provided her self of 2000000 Artists and Workmen to build this City of Babylon in one Year, |Babylon in Chaldea.| so ordering it that the River Euphrates should flow thro’ the midst of it, as Diod. Siculus, Lib. 2. cap. 1. informs us. She next encompass’d it with a Wall as many Furlongs in circuit as there are Days in the Year, viz. 365: This Wall was 300 Foot high and 75 broad, insomuch that Coaches might meet and turn upon it; She adorn’d it with 250 Turrets of suitable proportion: Then she made a Bridge 5 Furlongs in length, over the narrowest part of the River, and Floor’d it with great Joists and Planks of Cedar, Cypress and Palm-Tree, 30 Foot long: At each end of this Bridge, just on the Brink of the River, she built a Palace, whence she might have a Prospect of the whole City: Then in a low Ground she sunk a four square Pond, every Square being 300 Furlongs and the depth of the whole 35 Foot, lining it with Bricks, cemented together with a sort of Bitumen of a very glutinous Nature like Asphalt, which work’d out of the Earth so plentifully thereabouts, that it not only supply’d the People with Fuel, but serv’d them also instead of Mortar for their Buildings, and with which both the Palaces and Walls of this City were cemented. Afterwards, by turning the River aside, she made a Passage in the nature of a Vault from one Palace to another, and then let the Water again into its former Channel, which immediately overflow’d the whole Work, by which means she could go under the River when she had not a mind to pass over it. She likewise made two brazen Gates, one at each end of this Vault, as also Banqueting-Houses of Brass, into which passages were open’d by certain Engins. Here might be seen brazen Statues of Ninus, Semiramis and all the great Officers, as likewise Armies drawn up in Battalia. These Palaces were moreover surrounded with Walls, 30 Furlongs in circuit, with Turrets on them 140 Yards high, on whose Bricks were pourtray’d, before they were burn’d, all kinds of living Creatures, with great Art and curious Painting, particularly a general Hunting of all sorts of wild Beasts, each Beast being four Cubits high: Among these was Semiramis on Horseback, striking a Leopard thro’ with a Dart, and near her Ninus her Husband peircing a Lion with his Lance.

In the middle of the City she built a Temple to Jupiter Belus of exceeding great height, |Temple of Belus.| by the advantage of which, the Chaldean Astrologers observ’d the setting and rising of the Stars. Upon the top of it she plac’d three Statues of Jupiter, Juno and Rhea, all of beaten Gold. That of Jupiter was about 40 Foot high, and Juno held in her hand a Scepter adorn’d with precious Stones. These three Statues weigh’d 2830 Babylonish Talents, and for these Deities, there were plac’d on an Altar of beaten Gold, 40 Cubits long and 15 broad, Censors, Cups and Drinking-Bowls of Gold likewise, weighing at least 3230 Talents. Besides the richness of this City, it was so vast and great that Aristotle said, it ought rather to have been call’d a Country, adding withal, that when the Town was taken, it was three Days before the farthest part had notice of it.

The Pensil Garden.

Here likewise was the Pensil Garden so much fam’d, being 400 Foot square, with an ascent to it like to the top of a Mountain, and having Buildings and Apartments out of one into another, like a Theatre. Under the Steps of the Ascent were Arches, gradually rising one above another, and supporting the whole Building, the highest Arch upon which the Platform of the Garden was laid being 50 Cubits high, and the Garden it self surrounded with Battlements and Walls 22 Foot in thickness. The whole Fabric was floor’d over with massy Stones, 16 Foot long and 4 broad, and these again cover’d with Reeds run over with Bitumen, upon which were laid double Tiles, set together with hard Plaster, and those cover’d with Sheet-Lead, that the wet which should drain thro’ the Earth might not rot the Foundation. Upon all these was laid Earth of a convenient depth, which was planted with all sorts of Trees, that for largeness and beauty might delight the Spectators. The Arches had in them many stately Rooms of all kinds, and for all purposes; one of these had a certain Engin, that drew plenty of Water out of the River for watering the Garden, after such manner as none above knew how it was done. This Garden was built in latter Ages by Cyrus, at the request of a Persian Courtesan, who, coveting Meadows on the tops of Mountains, desir’d the King, by an artificial Plantation, to imitate the Land in Persia.

Semiramis built other Cities on the Banks of Euphrates and Tigris, and likewise caus’d a great Stone to be cut out of the Mountains of Armenia, 125 Foot in length and 5 in breadth and thickness, which she convey’d to the River by the help of many yokes of Oxen and Asses, and there putting it on board a Ship, brought it to Babylon, where she set it up in the most remarkable Place, as a wonderful Spectacle to all Beholders. |Obelisk of Semiramis.| This from its shape was term’d an Obelisk, signifying in Greek, a Spit, and accounted, says Diodorus, one of the seven Wonders of the World; from whence we have a very good Argument, that the Egyptian Obelisks were cut out of Rocks or Quarries, and not cast as some have suppos’d. Semiramis having finish’d these Works, went to the Mountain Bagistan in Media, which is 17 Furlongs from top to bottom, and there caus’d her own Image to be carv’d on the side of the Rock, and 100 of her Guards with Lances round about her. She also made a Garden on the middle of an exceeding high Rock, and built therein stately Houses of Pleasure, from whence she might have both a delightful Prospect into her Garden, and view her Army encamp’d below on the Plain: Likewise that she might leave behind her a lasting Monument of her Name, she in a short Time, yet at vast expence, made a shorter Passage towards Ecbatana, for by hewing down the Rocks, and filling up the Valleys, she laid that Way open and plain, which to this Day is call’d Semiramis’s Way. She plentifully supply’d Ecbatana with wholsome Waters, by means of a Canal she dug, 15 Foot over and 40 Foot deep, beginning from the foot of the Mountain Orontes, and as she went thro’ Persia and Asia, she plain’d all along the way before her, levelling both Rocks and Mountains. On the other hand, in Champagne Countries, she rais’d Eminences, whereon she either built Towns and Cities, or else Sepulchres for her Officers and great Commanders. Many other wonderful Things were done by this Queen, which seem to exceed common Belief; but as for those more admirable Works of the Egyptians, Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Pliny and others are full of Relations of what they have been, and the present Remains of some of them at Rome are sufficient Arguments to evince there were such, so that we should but loose Time in endeavouring to prove that which we now hope every one is satisfied of. Our next business therefore, must be to enquire how these Arts came first to be found out, and by what means they were accomplish’d and brought to so great Perfection: What these Arts and Sciences were, suppos’d by Authors to have been found out by the Egyptians, I have already shown else-where, so shall here only add, that Hermes or Mercury is reported by Diodorus Siculus and other Writers, to have been the chief Inventor of them; but as no Art was ever invented and compleated at one Time, so neither was it ever invented and perfected by one Person so far, but another could add somewhat more commodious or advantagious to it.

Now, as to the first Invention of Things, I shall consider these three principal Causes: |Arts how first Invented.| First, Necessity is said to have been the Mother of Invention, by reason it puts Mens Minds upon thinking how to supply their Wants, with such Things, and after such manner as they have most occasion for. Secondly, Unexpected Experiments, as when you aim and try to find out one Thing, and accidentally light on another: Thus ’tis said Gun-Powder and divers other considerable Things have been found out by Chance, and innumerable others by experimental Chymistry. Thirdly, Natural Philosophy, or Observation of the Instincts of all living Creatures, has suggested many noble Thoughts and Fancies to Men, both for Imitation and Invention. Now tho’ we cannot assert that Men at first learn’d Architecture from the Beaver, which builds himself a House for shelter and security in the Winter Time, yet are we certain they took the several Ornaments of Building either from Birds, Beasts and Fishes, or from the Leaves, Flowers and Fruits of Plants. Thus the Grecians generally us’d the Leaves of [5]Acanthus, and the Jews those of Palm-Trees and Pomegranates in their Buildings. Nor is it less probable their Weaving might be found out from the Spider or Silk-Worm, than that the Fish call’d Nautilus, or the little Mariner, was Navigiorum Archetipus, the first Type or Pattern of a Ship, who when he is to Swim, contracts his Body and Finns into the form of a Galley under Sail. From the sight whereof, some (as Pliny conceives) took the first hint of framing a Ship, as from the sight of a Kite flying in the Air, who turns and steers his Body with his Tail (as Fishes also do in the Water) some have devis’d the Stern and Rudder of a Ship. Iidem videntur Artem gubernandi docuisse Caudæ flexibus, in Cælo monstrante Natura quod opus esset in profundo, Pliny Lib. 10. cap. 10. They seem to have taught Men the Art of Steering a Ship by the flexures of their Tails, Nature shewing in the Air what was needful to be done in the Deep. ’Tis also observ’d by that great Naturalist Mr. Ray, that the Trunk of a Bird’s Body does somewhat resemble the Hull of a Ship, the Head the Prow, which is for the most part small, that it may the more easily cut the Air, and the Tail serves to steer, govern and direct its flight. We read there was a Beast in Egypt call’d Cynocephalus, of a very strange kind, kept in the Temple of Serapis, which, during the Time of the two Equinoxes, made Water 12 Times in a Day, and as often in the Night, regularly and at even Spaces of Time; from the Observation of which, they divided the Natural Day into 24 Hours, that Beast being as it were their Clock and Dial, both to divide their Day, and reckon their Hours by. This probably gave Ctesibius of Alexandria an hint to invent the Clepsydræ or Water Glasses, which distinguish’d the Hours by the fall or dropping of Water, as Clepsammidiæ or Sand-Glasses did by the running of Sand; and to shew they ow’d the Invention of these Water-Glasses to the Cynocephalus, they us’d to carve one on the top of them, as may be seen in Kircher in Mechanica Ægyptiaca. Now Egypt was both in respect of its Scituation as well as natural production of curious Things, a mighty help to the Invention and improvement of Arts and Sciences; for as Casalius de veter. Ægypt. Ritibus, p. 35. tells us, Arithmetic was first found out by their great Commerce, and Geometry from the River Nile’s Annual over-flowing the Fields, and removing their Bound-Marks, which occasion’d great Disputes among them, so that by the frequent measuring of the Ground it was deriv’d into this Art. And as for Astrology, the quality of the Climate and scituation of the Country was such, as gave them an advantage above others, more clearly to discern the rising and setting of the Stars, for by reason of the perpetual Serenity of the Air, they found out the Course of the Sun, Moon and Stars, with their Constellations, Aspects and Influences, and moreover by their often Worshipping those Planets, beheld and contemplated them more seriously, and from thence became the most skillful Astrologers in the World, as Firmianus Divin. instit. Lib. 2. cap. 14. says: Hereby also being made more perspicacious, and observing of natural Things, they invented Physick, for, as Prosper Alpinus, |Physic, how first found out.| Lib. de Medicina Ægyptiorum reports, They took the hints of curing divers Diseases from brute Beasts and Animals. Thus Phlebotomy or Bleeding was found out from the Hippopotomos or River-Horse, which lives in the Nile, for when this Beast is grown over fat with continual Gluttony and Gormandizing, he searches out for a sharp pointed Reed on the Banks of the River, and having found one fit for his purpose, sticks it into his Thigh, and wounds a certain Vein there; when having sufficiently emty’d his Plethoric Body by Bleeding, he closes, and as it were plasters up the Orifice with Mud. Also that a certain Bird call’d Ibis, about the Banks of Nile, first taught the Egyptians the way of administring Clysters; for this Bird has been often observ’d, by means of his crooked Bill intromitted into the Anus, to inject salt Water, as with a Syringe, into its own Bowels, and thereby to exonerate its Paunch when too much obstructed. Dogs are commonly known when Sick to Vomit themselves by eating Grass. Swine, so soon as they perceive themselves ill, refuse their Meat, and so recover by Abstinence. ’Tis reported the wild Goat taught the use of the Dictamnus, for drawing out of Darts and healing Wounds, and the Swallow the use of Celandine for recovering the Sight; whence we may as well infer, that from the diversity of Bodies, such as Flies, Spiders, Gnats, Bees, Pismires, Grashoppers, Locusts, Frogs, &c. inclos’d in Amber, the Egyptians might first learn the Art of Embalming; |How Embalming.| but since these things appear rather Fabulous, and the pleasant Flights of acute Wits and inquisitive Naturalists, than solid Truths to be rely’d on, we must have recourse to the fourth Cause, viz. That their Opinion of the Metemsychosis or Transmigration of the Soul, and other such like religious Principles, first oblig’d them to study this Art, and perhaps the known Virtues of Opobalsamum, so good against Mortifications and Putrifactions, might suggest to them the use of it in preserving the Bodies of Princes, as the Balsamic, Sulphurous and Bituminous Nature of their Asphalt, taught them to use that for the poorer sort of People; besides, whatever way it was first found out, it was as easie for them to do it as for us to believe it, says Gabriel Clauderus in Methodo Balsamandi, p. 41. because they excell’d all other Nations in Learning and Invention, so that by applying themselves with the utmost diligence to the study of this Art, they could not fail of attaining the perfection of it, especially since this Region was, above all others, the best accommodated with an extraordinary fruitfulness and plenty of Aromatic and Medicinal Things, necessary as well for all Physical Uses as for the decent performing of their Embalmings. Now Sandys, p. 38. tells us abundance of Practitioners in Physic are frequently invited to Cairo by the great store of Simples there growing. Add to this the extraordinary Diligence of the Egyptian Kings and Priests, both in rewarding Arts and being solicitously intent on finding out the Nature of Things themselves, not by indulging Superstition, but by a strict search and scrutiny, not trusting to plausible Appearances, but only to Experiments and Demonstration. To prove this we shall show such infallible Methods for the Invention and Improvement of all Arts and Sciences, that they could not easily miscarry in their Designs; for besides the famous Library of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and that in the Temple of Serapis, there was at Cairo, as Prosper Alpinus de Medicina Ægyptiorum relates, a University or place of Study call’d Gemelhazar, which paid yearly out of the public Stock of the Academy 300000 pieces of Gold for Books, Food, Stipends, &c.

5. ’Tis said the Ornaments of the Corinthian Chapiter were invented from seeing a Maid rest her Basket on a Tomb over-grown with this Plant; of which see Vitruvius.

The Invention of Arts and Sciences may be partly imputed to the goodness of their Laws, |Goodness of their Laws.| and their strictness in observing them; the Egyptians alledging this as an undeniable Argument, that the best Laws were made and instituted among them, in that the Native Kings had Reign’d in Egypt for the space of above 4700 Years, and that their Country during all that Time had been the most prosperous and flourishing in the World, which could never have been so if the Inhabitants had not been civiliz’d and brought up under good Laws, and a liberal Education in all kinds of Arts and Sciences. To effect this therefore they divided their People into three Orders: First, Priests. Secondly, Artificers and Husbandmen. And, Thirdly, Military Persons or Souldiers. Now each Person strictly keeping to his own Province, Art flourish’d in a right Line, and Sciences were not attack’d by rustic and ignorant Pretenders, but only practis’d by Priests, who were the chief of their Nobility, and liv’d separate from all others least their Learning should be any ways divulg’d. Nor was it lawful for any but Priests Sons to enter the Colleges where these Sciences were taught, whereby the more polite Knowledge was secur’d to the Priests, and mechanic Arts and Trades practis’d only by the inferior People. Now the better to effect and propagate this, they had three Laws that mightily encourag’d the Study and Invention of Arts, on which their chief Felicity depended, as Diodorus Siculus witnesses. First, In that they honour’d and esteem’d all such as were the first Inventors and Promoters of useful Things. Secondly, In that he who pretended to more Arts than one, incurr’d a most grievous Punishment. And, Thirdly, In that every one was oblig’d to appear annually before the Governour of the Province to show how he got his Living, which if he could not prove, or was found to subsist by unjust means, he was infallibly punish’d with Death. Thus all Men were employ’d, |Arts most flourishing in the Reign of Amasis.| and every Art carry’d to the highest perfection in the Reign of Amasis, who enacted the third Law. Now, as a further Argument of the Egyptian Industry, hear what Fl. Vopiscus relates of the Alexandrians: Civitas, says he, [Alexandria] opulenta, dives, fæcunda, in qua Nemo vivit otiosus, alii Vitrum conflant, ab aliis Charta conficitur, alii Linyphiones sunt: Omnes certe cujuscunque Artis & videntur & habentur; Podagrosi quod agant habent, habent cæci quod faciant, ne Chiragrici quidem apud eos otiosi vivunt. |Alexandria, how Industrious and Flourishing.| Alexandria is a plentiful and opulent City, in which none live idle: Some blow Glass, others make Paper, a third sort weave Linnen, and in a word, all have some Trade or Work. Those that have the Gout in their Feet or are Blind have something to do, and even such as have the Gout in their Hands are not idle. This shows how every Art was cultivated: Likewise their Industry and number of Hands as plainly prove the facility of performing those seemingly incredible and stupendious Works, which has taken us up so much Time to relate; for ’tis said, throughout the whole Country of Egypt, |Egypt, its number of Cities and Inhabitants.| in the Reign of Amasis, there were reckon’d no fewer than 20000 Cities, and that it was esteem’d the most populous Country of the World. Diodorus Siculus tells us it had in it above 18000 Cities, as might be seen register’d in their Sacred Records; and in the Time of Ptolemeus Lagus there remain’d above 3000. Once, they say, in a general Census taken of all the Inhabitants, they amounted to Seven Millions, and even at the Time of Diodorus, there were no less than Three Millions of People, |How it came to be so numerous.| which wonderful Encrease some think might be effected by the constant drinking of the Nile Water, which had the Virtue of making the Egyptian Women Prolific, so as commonly to bring forth three or four Children at a Birth. This may a little abate the wonder, how the Children of Israel could multiply to that degree in so short a space, that in 430 Years, from 70 Persons, which came with Jacob into Egypt, he became a mighty Nation; for it is said, at their departure, there journey’d, from Rameses to Succoth, about 600000 Men, besides Women and Children. Now how populous the Land from whence they came was, may be collected not only from their commanding such mighty Powers as were under them, but also, as has been before observ’d, from the several Accounts of that Kingdom, given us by Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus; for it is reported that Sesac or Sesonchis arm’d 400000 Foot, 60000 Horse and 1200 Chariots against Rehoboam, and that King Cheops or Chemnis employ’d 360000 Men in erecting one of the Pyramids. ’Tis also farther said, they built other stupendious Works, such as the Labyrinth, Obelisks, Colossus’s, &c. |By what Means such wonderful Works were perform’d,| as not knowing otherwise how to expend their Treasure or employ their People, thro’ which means their Kings, by their great Riches and infinite numbers of Men, left behind them such eternal Monuments of their State and Grandure, which altho’ they bear the name of Wonders to this very Day, as seeming very difficult to have been perform’d, yet were such Works render’d easie enough, if we consider so vast a multitude of Hands as were employ’d about them, and this being rightly consider’d, we may well enough believe what Herodotus says of Egypt, That it had more wonderful Works than all the Nations of the World besides.

and to what End.

Thus having shown how the Egyptians were the first Inventors and Propagators of Arts and Sciences, we will next show to what end they built those admirable Structures with so great Labour and Expence, thinking not as Aristotle, Lib. 3. Polit. who makes them to have been the Works of Tyranny, or as Pliny, Lib. 26. cap. 12. conjectures, that they built them partly out of Ostentation, and partly out of State-Policy, to divert their People from Mutinies and Rebellion by keeping them employ’d, but that they erected them as Repositories for their Dead, which they did from a Belief they had of the Immortality of the Soul, and an Opinion they held of the Metempsychosis or Transmigration of it from one Body to another: ’Tis true, those Arguments alledg’d by Pliny might be Secondary Motives, yet says Greaves in his Pyramidographia, p. 45. the true Reason depends upon higher and more weighty Considerations, |Theology of the Egyptians, or Metempsychosis.| springing from the Theology of the Egyptians, who as Servius shews in his Comment on these words of Virgil, Lib. 3. Æneid. where that Poet describes the Funeral of Polydorus,

——Animamq; Sepulchro

Condimus——

believ’d, That as long as the Body endur’d so long should the Soul continue with it, which also was the Opinion of the Stoicks: Hence the Egyptians, skilful in Wisdom, keep their Dead embalm’d so much the longer, to the end the Soul may for a long while continue with the Body, lest it should quickly pass into another. The Romans acted quite contrary, burning their Dead, that the Soul might suddenly return into the generality of Things, that is, into its own Nature; wherefore, says Greaves, that the Body might not either by Putrifaction be reduc’d to Dust, out of which it was first form’d, or by Fire be converted to Ashes (as the manner of the Greeks and Romans was) the Egyptians invented curious Compositions, besides intombing their Dead in stately Repositories, thereby to preserve them from Rottenness, and render them Eternal. Nec cremare, aut fodere fas putant, verum arte Medicatos intra penetralia collocant, says Pomponius Mela, Lib. 1. cap. 9. Also Herodotus in Thalia gives the Reason why they neither burn’d nor bury’d their Dead, for discoursing in his third Book of the Cruelty of Cambyses, and his commanding the Body of Amasis, an Egyptian King, should be taken out of his Sepulchre, be whipp’d and us’d with all contumely; he reports, after all this he order’d it to be burn’d, Commanding that which was not Holy, for the Persians imagin’d the Fire to be a God, |Fire thought by the Persians a God.| and neither the Egyptians nor they were accustom’d to burn their Dead: The Persians, for the Reason before alleg’d, because they conceiv’d it unfit for a God to devour the Carcass of a Man; and the Egyptians, because they were persuaded the Fire was a living Creature, |By the Egyptians a living Creature.| devouring all Things it receiv’d, and after it was satisfy’d with Food, dy’d with that it had devour’d. Nor was it their Custom to give their dead Bodies to Beasts (as the Hyrcanians were wont to do) but to Embalm or Salt them, not only for this Reason, but also that they might not be consum’d with Worms. The term ταριχεύειν, i. e. Salting or Embalming the Dead, us’d by Herodotus, is also us’d by Baruch and Plato. Lucian likewise in his Discourse de Luctu, treating of the several kinds of Burial practis’d by divers Nations, says, The Grecians burn their Dead, the Persians bury them, the Indians anoint them with the Fat of Swine, the Scythians eat them, and the Egyptians (ταριχεύει) Embalm them: Which manner likewise is alluded to by M. Aurelius Antoninus, under the word τάριχος: His Words are these, That which the other Day was excrementitious Matter, shall within few Days either be τάριχος, an Embalm’d Body, or down right Ashes; in the one expressing the Custom of the Egyptians, and in the other that of the Romans. By Salting or Embalming the Soul, according to the Belief of the Egyptians, was oblig’d to abide with the Body, and the Body on its part became as durable as Marble, insomuch that Plato, who liv’d in Egypt with Eudoxus no less than 13 Years, as Strabo witnesses, brings it for an Argument, in his Phædon, to prove the Immortality of the Soul, thro’ the long duration of these Bodies, which surely would have been yet more conclusive with him, could he but have imagin’d they should have continu’d so solid and entire even to this Day, as we find many of them are: For this Reason St. Austin |Egyptians believ’d the Resurrection.| truly affirms the Egyptians had a Belief of the Resurrection, in that they carefully preserv’d their Dead; for they had a Custom among them of drying up the Bodies, and rendring them as durable as Brass: These, in their Language they call’d Gabbares, whence the gloss of Isidore, Gabbares mortuorum in Vulcanius his Edition, or as Spondanus de Cæmet. sacris, Lib. 1. pars 1. cap. 5. reads, Gabbares mortuorum condita Corpora.

The manner how the Egyptians prepar’d and Embalm’d these Bodies is very copiously, and by what I observ’d at my being there, says Greaves in his Pyramidographia, p. 48. faithfully describ’d by Herodotus and Diodorus; in which Matter, tho’ I cannot totally dissent from Mr. Greaves, for their Account may be true, yet is it not so copious as they make it, but imperfectly related, or at least so far that some Passages are hardly to be understood or made out, which may easily be allow’d without Reflection on those famous Men, since they treated of the Matter only as Historians and not as Physicians: My business therefore shall be, after relating their own Words, to reconcile their Differences, explain the Difficulties, and compare the Opinions of Annotators and Physicians on this Art, and lastly, to suggest some new Thoughts, as plausible, and perhaps as true as any, especially since it is all but guesswork, and the true Art may have entirely perish’d with the antient Egyptians, either by Inundation, Fire, Irruptions of Enemies, or other hostile Devastations. I will begin first with Herodotus, whose Words serve as well to shew the several Ceremonies of Sepulture as their Embalmings, and whom we find in his Second Book call’d Euterpe, thus speaking of the Egyptians:

Herodotus’s Account of the Egyptian Funerals.

Their Mourning, says he, and manner of Burial are after this kind: When any Man of Quality dies, all the Women of that Family besmear their Heads and Faces with Dirt; then leaving the Body at home, they go lamenting up and down the City with all their Relations, their Apparel being girt about them, and their Breasts left naked. On the other hand the Men, having likewise their Cloaths girt about them, beat themselves. These things being done, they carry the dead Body to be Embalm’d; for which, there are certain Persons appointed who profess this Art. These, when the Body is brought to them, shew to those that bring it certain Models of Wood, painted like the Dead Person that is to be Embalm’d. One of these they say is accurately made (which I think not lawful to name;) then they shew a second inferior to it and of an easier Price, and next a third cheaper than the former, and of a very small value, which being seen, they ask them what Pattern they will have the dead Body prepar’d by: When they have agreed on the Price they depart, and those with whom the dead Corps is left proceed to Embalm it after the following manner: First of all they, with a crooked Iron, draw the Brain out of the Head thro’ the Nostrils, and then fill up the Cavity with Medicinal Ingredients. Next, with a sharp Æthiopic Stone, they cut up that part of the Abdomen call’d the Ilia, and that way draw out all the Bowels, which having cleans’d and wash’d with Palm-Wine, they again rinse and wash with Wine perfum’d with pounded Odours; then filling up the Belly with pure Myrrh and Cassia grosly powder’d, and all other Odours except Frankincense, they sow it up again. Having so done, they salt it up close with Nitre 70 Days, for longer they may not salt it. After this number of Days are over, they wash the Corps again, and then roul it up with fine Linnen all besmear’d with a sort of Gum commonly us’d by the Egyptians instead of Glue. Then is the Body restor’d to its Relations, who prepare a wooden Coffin for it, in the shape and likeness of a Man, and then put the Embalm’d Body into it, and thus inclos’d place it in a Repository in the House, setting it upright against the Wall. After this manner they with great expence preserve their Dead, whereas those who to avoid too great a Charge desire a mediocrity, thus Embalm them: They neither cut the Belly nor pluck out the Entrails, but fill it with Clysters of Oil of Cedar injected up the Anus, and then salt it the aforesaid number of Days. On the last of these they press out the Cedar Clyster, by the same way they had injected it, which has such Virtue and Efficacy that it brings out along with it the Bowels wasted, and the Nitre consumes the Flesh, leaving only the Skin and Bones: Having thus done, they restore the dead Body to the Relations, doing nothing more. The third way of Embalming is for those of yet meaner Circumstances: They with Lotions wash the Belly, then dry it with Salt for 70 Days, and afterwards deliver it to be carry’d away. Nevertheless, beautiful Women and Ladies of Quality were not deliver’d to be Embalm’d till three or four Days after they had been dead. Ea de causa facientes, ne cum Fæminis isti Salinarii concumbant. Deprehensum enim quendam aiunt coeuntem cum recenti Cadavere Muliebri, delatumq; ab ejusdem Artificii Socio. But if any Egyptian or Stranger was either kill’d by a Crocodile, or drown’d in the River, the City where he was cast up was to Embalm and bury him honourably in the Sacred Monuments, whom no one, no, not a Relation or Friend, but the Priests of Nile only might touch, because they bury’d one who was something more than a dead Man.

Diodorus Siculus’s Account of the Egyptian Funerals.

Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. relates the Funeral Ceremonies of the Egyptians more distinctly and clearly, and with some very remarkable Circumstances. When any one among the Egyptians dies, says he, all his Relations and Friends, putting Dirt upon their Heads, go lamenting about the City, till such time as the Body shall be bury’d. In the mean time they abstain from Baths and Wine, and all kinds of delicate Meats, neither do they during that time wear any costly Apparel. The manner of their Burials is threefold; one very costly, a second sort less chargable, and a third very mean. In the first, they say, there is spent a Talent of Silver, in the second 20 Minæ, but in the last there is very little Expence. Those who have the care of ordering the Body, are such as have been taught that Art by their Ancestors. These shewing to the Kindred of the Deceas’d a Bill of Expences of each kind of Burial, ask them after what manner they will have the Body prepar’d; when they have agreed upon the matter, they deliver the Body to such as are usually appointed for this Office. First he who has the name of Scribe, laying it upon the Ground, marks about the Flank on the left side, how much is to be cut away. Then he who is call’d the Cutter or Dissector, with an Æthiopic Stone, cuts away as much of the Flesh as the Law commands, and presently runs away as fast as he can: Those who are present persuing him, cast Stones at him, and curse him, hereby turning all the Execrations, which they imagin due to his Office, upon him. For whosoever offers violence, wounds or does any kind of injury to a Body of the same nature with himself they think him worthy of Hatred; but those who are call’d the Embalmers, they esteem worthy of Honour and Respect: For they are familiar with their Priests, and go into the Temples as Holy Men, without any prohibition. So soon as they come to Embalm the dissected Body, one of them thrusts his Hand thro’ the Wound into the Abdomen, and draws forth all the Bowels but the Heart and Kidnies, which another washes and cleanses with Wine made of Palms and aromatic Odours. Lastly, having wash’d the Body, they anoint it with Oil of Cedar and other Things for above 30 Days, and afterwards with Myrrh, Cinamon and other such like Matters; which have not only a power to preserve it for a long Time, but also give it a sweet Smell; after which they deliver it to the Kindred, in such manner that every Member remains whole and entire, and no part of it chang’d, but the beauty and shape of the Face seems just as it was before, and may be known, even the Hairs of the Eye-Lids and Eye-Brows remaining as they were at first. By this means many of the Egyptians, keeping the dead Bodies of their Ancestors in magnificent Houses, so perfectly see the true Visage and Countenance of those that dy’d many Ages before they themselves were born, that in viewing the Proportions of every one of them, and the Lineaments of their Faces, they take as much delight as if they were still living among them. Moreover, the Friends and nearest Relations of the Deceas’d, for the greater Pomp of the Solemnity, acquaint the Judges and the rest of their Friends with the Time prefix’d for the Funeral or Day of Sepulture, declaring that such a one (calling the Dead by his Name) is such a Day to pass the Lake, at which Time above 40 Judges appear, and sit together in a Semicircle, in a place prepar’d on the hither side of the Lake, where a Ship, provided before-hand by such as have the care of the Business, is hal’d up to the Shoar, and steer’d by a Pilot, whom the Egyptians in their Language call Charon. Hence, they say, Orpheus upon seeing this Ceremony while he was in Egypt, invented the Fable of Hell, partly imitating therein the People of Egypt, and partly adding somewhat of his own. The Ship being thus brought to the Lake-side, before the Coffin is put on board, every one is at liberty by the Law to accuse the Dead of what he thinks him guilty. Now if any one proves he was an ill Liver, the Judges give Sentence the Body shall be depriv’d of Sepulture; but in case the Informer be convicted of false Accusation, then is he severely punish’d. If no Accuser appear, or the Information prove false, then all the Kindred of the Deceas’d leave off Mourning, and begin to set forth his Praises, yet say nothing of his Birth (as the Custom is among the Greeks) because the Egyptians all think themselves equally Noble: But then they recount how the Deceas’d was educated from his Youth, and brought up to Man’s Estate, exalting his Piety towards the Gods and Justice towards Men, his Chastity and other Virtues, wherein he excell’d; and lastly, pray and call upon the Infernal Deities to receive him into the Society of the Just. The common People take this from the others, and consequently approve all is said in his Praise by a loud shout, setting likewise forth his Virtues in the highest strains of Commendation, as one that is to live for ever with the Infernal Gods. Then those that have Tombs of their own, interr the Corps in places appointed for that purpose, and they that have none, rear up the Body in its Coffin against some strong Wall of their House. But such as are deny’d Sepulture on account of some Crime or Debt, are laid up at home without Coffins: Yet when it shall afterwards happen that any of their Posterity grows Rich, he commonly pays off the deceas’d Persons Debts, and gets his Crimes absolv’d, and so buries him honourably, for the Egyptians are wont to boast of their Parents and Ancestors that were magnificently bury’d. ’Tis a Custom likewise among them to pawn the dead Bodies of their Parents to their Creditors, but then those that do not redeem them fall under the greatest Disgrace imaginable, and are deny’d Burial themselves at their Deaths.

Reflections on the Egyptian Embalming.

Thus far Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus have given the largest and clearest Accounts of any of the Ancients of the Funeral Ceremonies and Embalmings of the Egyptians, but there are still remaining some dubious and difficult Points necessary to be known, for the better understanding this Art: We shall make some Quere’s and Reflexions thereon, and endeavour to reconcile them by the Opinions of the more refin’d Artists, the modern Physicians.

The Mourning of the Egyptians.

First then of the Mourning of the Egyptians, by them very strictly observ’d for a long time, and perform’d after the following manner: When any of their Kings dy’d they lamented his Death with a general Mourning, making sad Lamentations, putting Dirt upon their Heads, rending their Cloaths and beating their Breasts; they shut up their Temples and Markets, and prohibited all Festivals and Rejoycings; they abstain’d from all delicate Meats and costly Apparel, from Baths, Perfumes and Ointments, and neither made their Beds nor accompany’d with their Wives, but express’d all the signs of an extraordinary Affliction, that they could have done for their own Child. This their Mourning continu’d till the Body was bury’d, which was no less than 72 Days, during which, both Men and Women, and those about 2 or 300 in number, went about the City twice a Day without any thing on but a Linnen-Cloath girt about their Bodies, from beneath their Breasts downwards, renewing their Grief, and intermixing the Virtues and Praises of the deceas’d Prince with their Sighs and Outcries. Much the same Ceremonies were observ’d in their private Funerals, some of which we shall insert from the Writings of the famous Don Antonio de Guevara, Historiographer to the Emperor Charles V. who in his 10th Letter, English’d by Mr. Savage, thus writes: ‘Of all Nations, none we read of made so much adoe about their Dead as the Egyptians, who, when ever a Friend dy’d, always shew’d him far more Respect than while he liv’d; insomuch that if a Father lost a Son, a Son a Father, or one Friend was depriv’d of another, they us’d to shave off half their Hair as a Hieroglyphic to demonstrate they had parted with half of themselves. Also the Egyptian Women, when their Husbands, Children or Relations dy’d, were wont to tear their Flesh, and scratch their Faces with their Nails. Likewise the lesser Priests, at the Funerals of the greater, were accustom’d to mark their Flesh with red hot Irons, either on their Hands, Arms or Breasts, to the end that when ever they beheld those Scars they might immediately be dispos’d to lament their loss. In like manner they had a Custom, that when ever a King or Prince dy’d, all his Officers were instantly oblig’d to slash themselves with Knives in some visible part of their Bodies; insomuch, that he who was observ’d to have most Wounds, was always look’d upon to be the greatest Mourner. All which Ceremonies being in themselves superstitious, and no doubt invented by the Devil, forasmuch as the Egyptians were all naturally Necromancers, Magicians, Wizzards and Astrologers, and for that they were not only a damage to the Living, but also no Advantage to the Dead; GOD forbad the Children of Israel (who living so long in Egypt, had contracted many ill Customs from those People) both marking and cutting their Flesh, as appears from Leviticus 19. 27, 28. where he Commands the Israelites neither to round the Corners of their Heads, nor mar the Points of their Beards: To make any Cuttings in their Flesh, or print any Marks upon it on account of their Dead.’

How the Egyptians Embalm’d Bodies.

Thus Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus having first describ’d the manner of Mourning among the Egyptians, they next proceed to give an Account of their Embalmings, telling us, That whilst the Ceremonies of Mourning were performing, they carry’d the Dead to be Embalm’d, as I suppose, to a certain place appointed for that purpose, where Persons resided who profess’d that Art, being well experienc’d therein, and taught it by their Ancestors. These show’d the Relations or Persons that brought the Body, and had commission for ordering the Funeral, certain Models or Patterns of Wood, painted in the likeness of Embalm’d Bodies, |Three different kinds of Embalming.| being of three several kinds and Prizes, suitable to every one’s Condition and Quality; some very Rich and Costly, others of a moderate Price, and a third sort cheaper and of very little Value. Having agreed upon the Sort and Price, they immediately go about Embalming the Body, and as Herodotus tells us, first of all draw out the Brain, with a crooked Iron, thro’ the Nostrils, infusing in its place, by the same way, several Medicaments, which as it is contrary to our Custom of Dissection, that begins with the Abdomen, seeing its Contents soonest putrifie and become offensive even in our cold Country, and much more would do in so hot a Climate as that of Egypt, if neglected; so the extraction of the Brain, after the manner propos’d by him, is a very difficult and tedious piece of Work, if possible to be perform’d at all; but his wrong beginning of this Work of Embalming is not so material a Mistake, as his amusing us with a Story of drawing forth the Brain thro’ the Nostrils with a crooked Iron, (by which I suppose he means some particular sort of Instrument) and not farther explaining himself how or after what manner it was done; and indeed I believe he could not, the thing being in it self impracticable and ridiculous, which any one skill’d in Anatomy will readily agree to. But grant it could be done, the afore-said extraction of the Brain thro’ the Nostrils, must nevertheless so dilacerate the cartilagineous parts of the Nose, that the carnous and cutaneous parts would sink, and thereby render the Face deform’d. More agreeable therefore to Reason is what Gryphius in Tract. de Mum. Wratislav. p. 45. asserts, That it might be more commodiously extracted thro’ a large Foramen, made in the hinder part of the Head, near the upper Vertebræ of the Neck; but that this was not the right way neither, I am thoroughly convinc’d from the Skull of an Embalm’d Body I have by me, which has no such Apertion. |The Brain how extracted.| To reconcile therefore this seeming difficulty, I will shew a Method how ’tis possible to be perform’d by a convenient Instrument which I have devis’d, and intend to describe in another Place, contenting my self here to tell you, That by injecting Oil of Cedar, or the like corrosive Medicine thro’ the Nostrils, or thro’ the Ears, by a Passage privately made into the Skull, the Brain may be consum’d and brought away, and the Skull, by injections of spirituous and aromatic Wines, be thoroughly wash’d and cleans’d; and lastly fill’d with melted Bitumen or sweet Balsams, that acquire a solid Consistence when cold. And altho’ Greaves seems well satisfy’d with Herodotus’s Account, yet is his Observation, p. 49. of his Pyramidographia, more agreeable to this Opinion of mine, where he tells us, That having caus’d the Head of one of the richer sort of Embalm’d Bodies to be open’d, he found in the hollow of the Skull the quantity of two pounds of Medicament, which had the consistence, blackness and smell of a kind of Bitumen or Pitch, and by the heat of the Sun was become soft.

Diodorus Siculus begins more methodically with the Scribe or Designer, |The Scribe or Designer.| an Officer so call’d, who draws upon a piece of Paper, or marks on the Body it self, the part that was to be open’d, viz. The Flank on the left side. |Dissector.| Then the Dissector made the Incision (without cutting off any of the Flesh, or running away so soon as he had done) and thrusting his Hand into the Belly, drew out all the Guts, which, as Plutarch writes, were cast into the River Nile, Tanquam inquinamenta Corporis, as defiling the Body: But Diodorus tells us, The Body was embowell’d by one of the Embalmers, which altho’ it appears to me a more filthy and detestable Work than making the Incision, |Embalmers much honour’d.| yet he says the Embalmers were highly honour’d and respected, being familiar with the Priests, and entring into the Temples as Holy Men, whereas he excludes the Dissectors from out of that number, as performing an odious Operation hateful to all Men. In this distinction however I am apt to think he’s either intirely out, or has mistaken it for just the contrary; for, as we have already shown, p. 181. Anatomy was not only generally approv’d, but likewise often perform’d by Holy and Great Men, such as the Egyptian Priests and Kings, who would either have practis’d or taught better, in case it had been so heinous a Crime as this Author makes it; whence, without doubt, those that did this pious and necessary Office towards preserving the Dead, must needs have been equally honour’d with the Embalmers, and what seems yet clearly to confirm this, is that sometimes the Art of Embalming has been call’d Honesta Anatomia.

Now the Instrument with which this Incision was made was an Ethiopic Stone call’d Basaltes, |Basaltes an Ethiopic Stone.| and nam’d from its hardness and colour like to Iron, that word in the Ethiopic Language signifying Iron, and this Stone being much harder than that Metal, it might very probably be whet to a keen edge or point, and so be ceremonially us’d instead of an Incision-Knife, like as the antient Jews were wont to use Knives made of Flints in their Circumcision, Joshua 5. 2.

The Embowelling a Corps.

As to the Exenteration or Embowelling the Body, we are not to imagine they drew out only the Brain and Guts, but likewise the Lungs, Stomach, Liver, Spleen, and other Viscera, except the Heart and Kidnies, which being carnous and fleshy might very likely be left, as being easier to be preserv’d than the moist parts. The former they might probably leave to be Embalm’d, as being the principal Bowel of the whole Body, and source of vital Heat (wherefore it has been frequently preserv’d apart by several People) but for what Reason, or out of what Superstition they left the latter I cannot readily conjecture.

Then having empty’d the Head, Breast and Belly of their Contents, they first wash’d and cleans’d them with Phænician or Palm-Wine, compounded of aromatic Spices and sweet Odours, |The Body stuff’d with medicinal Ingredients.| and afterwards stuff’d them with a mixture of sweet scented Drugs, Spices and Balsams, such as Myrrh, Aloes, Saffron, Cassia or Cinamon, Opobalsamum and the like, Frankincense only being excepted, because that was by them consecrated to their Gods. These Ingredients had not only a power to preserve the Body for a long Time, but also gave it a sweet and agreeable Smell. This done, they sew’d up the Incision or Passage thro’ which they drew forth the Bowels; but Antonius Santorellus in his Post-Praxis Medica, p. 136. not without Reason observes, That tho’ Aromatics are of a drying quality, yet as they are likewise heating, they may occasion a Fermentation in the Body; therefore I am apt to think Myrrh and Aloes were the basis of the Composition, and that Aromatics were us’d only in small quantities, and that rather to conciliate a grateful Odour to the Body than preserve it from Putrifaction. Yet I am not ignorant at the same time of what some alledge of Aromatics, that by their innate balsamic Virtue, by their bitterness and oleaginous Sulphur, or penetrability of their volatil Salts, they resist Putrifaction. Neither am I ignorant of what Bellonius affirms, Lib. 2. De Medicato Funere, p. 27. that neither Myrrh, Aloes nor Saffron have so much Virtue as to consume the Humidity of a dead Body, nor being hard Bodies can penetrate so far as to enter the Bones and replete their Cavities. Furthermore asserting, That if Aloes were us’d in Embalming they would give the Body a bitter taste, whereas no Mummies have been ever found to have such a taste; and this is also taken notice of, says the aforesaid Author, by Valerius Cordus, one who wrote more truly of the Mummies than all the Physicians of his Time had done: But I suppose both these Learned Men spoke rather from their experience of common Bodies, Embalm’d with Cedar, Asphalt or Pissasphalt, than from the Bodies of Princes and rich Men, which being Embalm’d after the best manner, with odoriferous and aromatic Gums and Spices, had in that Composition a mixture of fine Aloes, and this any one will the readier grant, who considers the manner of the |Myrrh, Aloes and Cinnamon.| antient Jews or Hebrews Embalming with Myrrh, Aloes and Cinamon, which they learn’d of the Egyptians by living so long among them, chiefly differing in this, That the Hebrews Anointed or Embalm’d their Dead without Exenteration, thereby intending only to render the Body sweet and free from Putrifaction for a short Time, or ’till its Burial, whereas the Egyptians Embowell’d and Embalm’d theirs for Eternity. But here still arises another Controversie, viz. What is to be understood by the Word Aloes in Balsamation? Whether Agalochum or Lignum Aloes, a Wood of a very pleasant smell, or Aloes, an express’d Juice from the Leaves of a Plant, a Gum of a strong Odour? Most Annotators on the word Aloes, mention’d in the Holy Scripture, as in Prov. 7. 17. Cant. 4. 14. John 19. 39. interpret it the Wood Aloes, being an excellent sweet scented and aromatic Perfume; and since it is also of a bitterish Taste, and indu’d with some balsamic Qualities, ’tis not absur’d to think it was us’d together with other Ingredients in Embalming, yet according to a physical Judgment in this Art, we nevertheless believe that Aloes, the Gum or inspissate Juice of a Plant, so manifest for its extraordinary and incomparable bitterness and efficacy to resist Putrifaction, was one of the chief Ingredients in their Composition, for otherwise the Scripture would have given a more peculiar signification of the Word, to distinguish the Wood from the Gum: So that he who determines that both might have been apply’d, one to correct the ill Savour of the other, may commit no great Mistake, or at least if he thinks, that the Wood was chiefly us’d in their perfuming Ointments, and the Gum in their Embalmings.

The Body being stuff’d full of aromatic and sweet Odours, they sew’d it up again, and then salted it with Nitre for the space of 70 Days, as Herodotus relates; yet Diodorus Siculus speaks nothing of this Salting, but in its stead substitutes the manner of Anointing: Both which Terms of Salting and Anointing Authors confound one with another, and under the same denomination express two different Operations or Works, and yet seem to make them perform’d by the same Persons: For those who are said to be the Embalmers, |The Salters or Pollinctors.| are call’d by some Taricheutæ or Salitores, a verbo ταριχεύειν, Salire or Sale durare, and by others Pollinctors, ab unguendis Cadaveribus quasi polluti, vel a verbo pollingere, quod est, polliendo ungere, vel Pellem ungere, &c. whose Office and Business was to exenterate or embowel the Body, to wash and cleanse it, and to salt and anoint it. These again, some say, were much honour’d and respected, and others on the contrary, That they were so abominated that they would not suffer them to live in the City; which latter I am most apt to believe, as performing a very vile and servile Work, therefore might well be look’d upon as polluted Persons. Who then were the true Embalmers, properly so call’d, and had in most esteem, I shall anon show; but must first proceed to speak of their Salination, and the Virtues and Qualities of Nitre and other Salts.

Nitre why us’d in Embalming.

‘Bellonius, Lib. 3. cap. 8. De Medicato Funere, tells us, the Egyptians and other Eastern Nations, attributed very great Virtues to Nitre for preserving the Carcasses of the Dead, and that notwithstanding other Salts and Aromatics, endu’d with astringent and exsiccating Qualities, might have the same Virtue, yet since none were more efficacious, Embalmers or Salters were wont chiefly to use Nitre. Those both the Greek Historians and Physicians have sufficiently describ’d, but since they so disagree about this, I think it not improper to treat more particularly of it. First, Herodotus tells us, The Egyptians salted the dead Body 70 Days, and afterwards adds the use and reason of it, because, says he, Salt consumes the Flesh, and leaves nothing behind it but Skin and Bones; whence it appears Nitre was in very great esteem among them for preserving the Dead. But now, says Bellonius, there is so great scarcity of Nitre in Europe, that no Physician can say he has ever seen the true, for certainly a Man may be as well cheated in that Salt as in any Drugs now commonly us’d. Some there are who promiscuously use many Things instead of it, and others that as erroneously assert there are two sorts of it, one factitious and another natural, and I very much wonder that several excellent Physicians should not have taken notice, that the Saltpetre we now-a-days use is not the true Nitre: Nor have any of the Ancients distinguish’d Nitre into artificial and natural, one made by Art, and the other a concrete Body dug out of the Earth; for all Nitre is certainly made by Art, after the manner of other Salts, and not conceal’d in the Earth, but found above it. Nor is there any native Nitre dug out of the Earth, altho’ it may be made from Water; for Rain-Water being the purest, lightest and sweetest of all Waters, makes the best Nitre; so likewise does the Nile-Water, which from the force of its Mud, soon condenses the Nitre. Now to know where Nitre may be found, read Theophrastus, Lib. 3. cap. 22. who gives this as a very plain Argument, That where Palm-Trees grow in plenty, as they do in Africa, Syria, and the like Countries, there the Soil will always be Nitrous; for tho’ these Trees require the circum-ambient Air to be hot, that their Fruits may ripen, yet they nevertheless covet a salt Soil to refrigerate their Roots; whence we may gather that a Virtue in Earth to make Nitre is more wanting than in Water: But in Africa Nitre was cheaper than Salt, for tho’ Salt was both artificially made and dug out of the Rock, yet by reason of a Tax and Duty upon it, it was not so easie to be got as Nitre, which naturally concreted in the Vallies, and might be had without any Expence; wherefore the Arabians, who liv’d not far from the Sea, and the Egyptians, who had Nitre so cheap among them, us’d it before Salt, which they were forc’d to seek for and get in more remote Places; nay, they us’d to eat Nitre with their Radishes and Pot-Herbs, after the same manner as we now do Salt. And thus, so soon as the Inhabitants had first made Trial of Nitre, using it in their Bread, Pottage, Gruels, with their Flesh and other Food, and finding it wholesom, sought for no other Salt, but us’d Nitre in its stead, and taught the neighbouring Countries to do the like. But the Macedonians made their Bread with a sort of Nitre call’d, |Chalastræum Nitrum.| Chalastræum Nitrum, a Chalastra Civitate, Plin. 13. 10. a pure sort of Saltpetre, which, for the most part, they rather chose to make use of than Salt. Nitre took its rise in many parts of Europe, Asia and Africa, but Authors know that of one Country from another, by the goodness and badness of it, tho’ Nitre in general be commended by all, |Nitrum Berenicum.| and Galen praises the Nitre of Berenice of Pentapolis in Egypt.

‘Those Springs call’d by Pliny, Fontes amari, on the Shoar of the Red-Sea, would have had but little bitterness, had not the Soil been Nitrous. All the Fountains likewise of Arabia are bitterish, by reason of the nitrous Earth thro’ which they pass, and that Lake near the City of Chalastra in Macedon affords much Nitre. |Nitri spuma.| Authors call it Nitri spuma, Aphronitrum, and by several other Names. Galen orders this stony Matter first to be burn’d, and then levigated to a Powder; whereby it plainly appears our Saltpetre is not Nitre. There is nothing more frequently mention’d by Absyrtus, in his Book of Farriery, than Nitre; and it was also us’d by Ganea, and the Skilful have observ’d many Things to grow tender by Nitre, especially the Roots of Herbs, which are also made whiter by it, and Coleworts and Pot-Herbs greener.’ Some call the Flower of the Lapis Assius, Nitre, a kind of Stone of which Coffins were formerly made, which wasted dead Bodies: ‘But I would advise the Reader, says Bellonius, not to believe that Nitre, which we speak of, to have any affinity with the Salt commonly so call’d. |Armenian Nitre.| Avicenna prefers the Armenian Nitre before the Egyptian, and Dioscorides very much praises the Nitre of Buna. |Nitre of Buna.| The common People daily use the Nitre of Turkey, |Nitre of Turkey.| tho’ we are nevertheless ignorant whence it comes, and there is nothing more common among the Merchants of Nitria, Memphis, Constantinople and Damascus than what they vulgarly call Natron. It grows very plentifully in the Eastern Countries, and is much us’d in Dying Silk and Wool. Serapio also confounds Borax, which the Goldsmiths use, with Nitre; but Nitre is truly made by the benefit of the Soil and the force of the hot Sun, wherefore ’tis call’d by some of the Greeks Halmirhaga, |Halmirhaga.| deriving its Name partly from its bitterish Taste, and partly from its being got out of the Earth at Nitria, a City of Egypt, so call’d from Nitre. At Naucratis and Memphis there are places where Nitre grows, and where the Water is pour’d into it like Sea-Water into Salt-Pits. Between Memphis and Jerusalem we saw a Desart concreted with Nitre, from whence so great a quantity might be taken, that many Ships might have been easily laden therewith; which Desart, so concreted with Nitre, was longer than half a Mile, and when I past by it in the Night-Time, I thought it had been cover’d with Salt; and when the Moon shon, it rebounded up to the Pupils of my Eyes, and dazl’d them with its splendor. In it Camels, Horses and Mules had left the impression of their Footsteps, and when I lighted off my Horse and had cut some of it up, I found it to be of the same kind which I had before seen at Memphis. Nitre therefore is not dug out of a Mountain, or found in the Cavity of a Subterranean Den, or any where cover’d with Earth, but gather’d up a concrete Body from the surface of a Desart or solitary Place, and is to be ascrib’d more to the Earth than Water, by reason the Earth has there a kind of nitrous Substance. When Rain, Fountain or the Nile-Water has stood long in a Valley, it at length becomes nitrous, by exhaling up to its self a salt Matter or Substance from the bottom, which afterwards concretes, with the heat of the Sun, and becomes much harder than Salt. The whole mass of Nitre is not concreted in one and the same Day, but gradually and by degrees increases and becomes dry. The first Concretion has no great thickness, but when wet again with other Water, it adds by little and little another Covering. This growing harder and harder, so long concretes that it at last becomes a Foot and half thick, by which it comes to pass that the Face of the Nitre keeps a certain likeness to crusted Cadmia; for the whole Mass consists of right courses in equal Circles, and is not divided by intricate Windings, which Remark argues, that Nitre arises from a level Superficies or concretes in a certain solitary Place. Moreover the porous Nitre is dissolv’d in Water, but so that you cannot see the least Settlement in it, altho’ a great deal of an earthy Substance be found among it; and as a further Argument of the Truth of this, its very Ashes show it contains in it a great mixture of earthy Particles; for burning once a Pound of crude Nitre, I found four Ounces of Ashes remain’d, whereas our Saltpetre, if it but touch Fire, immediately flames, and is in an instant resolv’d into Air; whence we collect, that it consists of very subtil Parts, for ’tis very pungent on the Tongue, has great Tenuity, and plentifully provokes Spitle. |Three kinds of Nitre.| There are three sorts of Nitre, but that which is of a Rose-colour, or whitish and porous like Sponge, such as is brought from the Islands of Buna, Dioscorides prefers to the rest, being hard and solid for the most part like that of Egypt, and which indurates into heaps like Stone, which therefore are call’d by the Greeks Βουνοί, from the resemblance they have to Hills. The second sort of Nitre is not so well distinguish’d by Dioscorides as by Galen, who is thought to have us’d the name of Spuma Nitri two ways, first by dividing the words, Ἀφρὸς νίτρου, and secondly, by compounding them into Ἀφρόνιτρον, which distinction Pliny also seems to have observ’d where he calls the Spuma Nitri by the Latin word Operimentum, interpreted by Avicenna’s Annotator, Capistrum Nitri, not because the Nitre ferments or foams up in an old Valley, or that it is in it self a light Froth, but by reason the Spume of Nitre lyes on the top of the Nitre, and flowers of it self in Nitre-Works or Vallies in the Day-Time; for Nitre flowers with the Dew which falls in the Night, and then increases its Superficies and is perfected in the Day-Time, which Covering therefore is rightly call’d by Avicenna’s Interpreter Capistrum, but better by Pliny, Operimentum. Of this Dioscorides thus writes: |Spuma Nitri.| ‘That Spuma Nitri is best which is lightest, friable, biting and of a purplish Colour, such as is brought from Philadelphia in Lydia. The second sort is that of Egypt, which likewise is to be had in Magnetia in Caria.’ How this Efflorenscence which Pliny sometimes calls Operimentum, sometimes Spuma Nitri, and at other times Aphronitrum, is generated, we have shewn before, so shall next show what Aphronitrum is, for I distinguish between Aphronitrum and Spuma Nitri, that is, the Operimentum or Covering. But Pliny confounds Aphronitrum and Nitrum together, so that I really believe both Pliny and Serapio have taken what they have written of this Matter from the same Fountains; for Serapio speaking of Nitre says, There are two sorts of it, one call’d Nitre, which is Saltpetre, of a reddish Colour, saltish and bitterish Taste, soon discovering its burning Quality, |Borax.| and another sort call’d Borax, us’d by the Inhabitants of Yaya in working up their Bread, to make it look clear after ’tis bak’d. But that sort call’d artificial Borax is an incisive and abstersive Saltpetre, made from a nitrous Matter, being a mixture of Lead and Kali mingl’d together and put over the Fire, and this seems to be nothing else but that which the Goldsmiths use. Rhasis also is in a manner of the same Opinion with Serapio, for he says, of the two sorts of Borax, that which is made artificially, and is white and froathy, is much better than that of an earthy colour and dusty. It is from this that Tincar is made and seal’d. |Tincar.| Pliny has not omitted to mention this sealing as Galen and Dioscorides have likewise done, therefore I will insert his Words the better to show that his sealing of Tincar is the same with that of the Arabians. The next Age of Physicians, says he, deliver’d that Aphronitrum was gather’d in Asia, distilling into soft Caves or Dens, which they call’d Colycæ, and afterwards dry’d in the Sun. The best sort is that of Lydia, which is very light and friable, and almost of a purplish Colour, and brought thence in little Cakes or Trochisks, which words seem intirely to answer those of the Arabian; for, What can this Author mean by Trochisks, but the same thing which Serapio calls little seal’d Pieces? But Rhasis adds, That the Egyptian Nitre was brought in Vessels pitch’d over, least it should melt; and Pliny shows, that the next Age of Physicians deliver’d it was gather’d in Asia. Perhaps in the Time of Dioscorides, and also before his Time, they did not use to Seal the Spuma Nitri and Aphronitrum. |Lydian Nitre.| Pliny gives the Preference to the Lydian, and, moreover, when he describes the Marks of chusing it, he gives the same to the Aphronitrum as Dioscorides does to his Ἀφρόνιτρον. But that I may speak freely what I know of those three, they all proceed from the same Mass, altho’ from the different Places and Earth, they acquire a different colour, for some are of a Rose-colour, and others white. The Operimentum or Covering falls in Lydia and Egypt. The greatest use of Nitre in Laconia is for scouring Bodies. But since the Mass of Nitre, when long kept in Houses, consumes and wastes away by degrees, insomuch that that which was before hard, becomes gradually soft and crumbling, more-especially if it be kept in a moist place, nevertheless it does not discontinue being a Mass or Lump, but only becomes softer than Nitre. Physicians, when they remark or take notice as it were of a certain kind of Metamorphosis, of that which was before hard, so easily to become softer, think its Name ought to be chang’d, and its Virtues ascrib’d apart. But that which I have said concerning the alteration of Nitre, I have found true by experience, in some I brought with me out of the Eastern-Countries; for having given a great part of it to my Friends, some of them complain’d it was turn’d to Powder, and others, who had kept it in a moister place, that it was grown softer, and had chang’d its Colour. Pliny, Lib. 31. cap. 10. says, The Nature of Nitre is not to be esteem’d very different from Salt, and this he the more diligently asserts, inasmuch as those Physicians who have written of it, were ignorant of its true Nature, altho’ none has written more carefully of it than Theophrastus. He says, moreover, some Nitre is made in Media, the Vallies growing white and hoary with dryness. After the Rain or Fountain-Water is exhal’d from it, it is condens’d by the Soil, and converted into Nitre. Hence appears, as I said before, that those are very much deceiv’d, who report Nitre to be a certain Subterranean Matter like to Metal. Pliny afterwards adds, That the sort of Nitre call’d Agrium, in Thrace near Philippi, is less mix’d with Earth than any other sort; but I dare affirm Nitre is now no longer made in Thrace, for when I travell’d thither, and to and fro in the Philippian Country, that I might see this Nitre, I could find none either about the Ruins of the before-mention’d City or the adjacent Region. |Chalastræum Nitrum.| The Chalastræum Nitre took its Name from the City Chalastra. This I believe to be that sort which Alexander call’d Bucephalum, from the Name of his Horse. Nitrous Waters, says Pliny, are found in many places, but without any Power of condensing, which agrees with what I have already said, that all nitrous Waters will not make Nitre; so likewise all nitrous Earth, altho’ Water be pour’d over it, will not make Nitre, for ’tis necessary it should have a Virtue of thickning by the Sun, therefore this Virtue is believ’d not to be wanting in the Water, but in the Earth, for ’tis certain Nitre may be made out of the lightest, purest and sweetest Water. Nitre is very heavy in it self, for it sinks in Water like a Stone. The best Nitre, says Pliny, is very plentiful in Macedonia, |Nitrum Chalastricum.| and is call’d Chalastricum, being white and pure like to Salt. The Lake is nitrous, and out of its middle a sweet Fountain flows; there Nitre swims, about the rising of the Dog-Star, for nine Days together, and in as many ceases, then swims again, and afterwards ceases again, by which ’tis apparent the heat of the Sun condenses the Nitre, provided the Nature of the Soil be answerable, as Pliny witnesses in these words: The Nature of the Soil is what breeds Nitre, as is apparent, in that where it is wanting, neither Salts nor Showers avail any thing. This is also very wonderful, that tho’ the Spring be always seen to flow, yet neither does it increase the Lake nor run over; but if it Rains in those Days in which it is bred, the Nitre will become more Salt, and worse if the North-Winds happen to blow, for they violently stir up the Mud: In this place indeed ’tis produc’d, but more plentifully in Egypt, |Egyptian Nitre.| tho’ a worser sort, for ’tis of a dark colour and stony. It is made almost in the same manner with Salt, only they let the Sea run into their Salt-Pits, but the River Nile into their Nitre-Works. The Nile-Water being drawn off they dry it, and again infuse it in Nitre-Water 40 Days successively, but if it Rains they add less of the River-Water. So soon as it begins to condense, it is taken away least it should be dissolv’d in their Nitre-Works, but if laid up in heaps it will keep. Thus much Pliny speaks of Nitre, which abundantly shows it is no where dug in any Mountain or Soil, but as I have shown before, immediately so soon as it has begun to condense, and it Rains, they take it away, and lay it up in heaps, that it may last, for otherwise it would be melted by the Rain in their Nitre-Works. What Pliny says afterwards seems obscure, viz. That the thinnest part of Nitre is best, and consequently the Efflorenscence is better, nevertheless the foul sort is useful for some Things, as for dying Purples, Scarlets, &c. by which words ’tis evident he means two sorts of Nitre, one very fine call’d Spuma Nitri, |Spuma Nitri.| which he prefers for the best, and another course, us’d for dying Colours. The Nitre-Works in Egypt are very famous, and were wont to be only about Naucratis and Memphis: The worst are about Memphis, for there it lapifies in heaps, and from that cause many Hillocks are stony, of which they make Vessels. They also very frequently boil it with Sulphur upon Coals till it is melted; and use it in those things they would have keep a long while. There are Nitre-Works where it comes out reddish from the colour of the Earth. Thus far of Nitre; next Pliny mightily commends the Efflorenscence of Nitre, yet says, The Ancients deny’d it could be made, but only when the Dew fell and the Nitre-Places were pregnant, but not when they brought forth, therefore could not be done by hastning or stirring up altho’ it fell. Others think it was bred by Fermentation, &c.’ Thus far of Nitre according to Bellonius, Pliny and others.

Pickle made of Nitre.

Now this is generally agreed on, that after the Body was stuff’d with sweet Odours, Gums and Spices, it was macerated in a sort of Pickle, the Composition of which, tho’ unknown to us, is asserted by most of the Ancients to be made of Nitre. Nor is it proper for us, say Penicher, Traite des Embaumemens, p. 83. to explain one Obscurity by another that is greater; since this Nitre, so famous and mightily boasted of by the Ancients, is at this Day a Mistery, for the more one endeavours to show its Origin, by examining the different Descriptions given it, the more reason one has to doubt of its Existence. In the first place, they agree not in one point among themselves, |Different Opinions of Nitre.| either as to its Colour, Figure or Quality; for some say ’tis white, others that ’tis red, and others again that ’tis of a Leaden or Ash-colour: Some there are who will have it of a porous Substance like a Sponge, others that ’tis solid and compact, and others that ’tis shining and transparent like to Glass. Nor do they less dissagree about its Virtue than its Form and Colour, for some say ’tis of a cold Nature, and others that it has a Caustic Quality, as Herodotus, who says, that it consumes the Flesh in such manner that it leaves nothing but Skin and Bones. Wherefore, after so many Contradictions and different Descriptions of the nature of this Mineral, what can we believe for certain? Have we not just reason to doubt that this Nitre is but pretended? How should it come to be invisible if it were a Mineral? And again why should we not have it, if it be produc’d after the manner of our common Salt? The Sun, Moon and other Planets, as also the Earth have not ceas’d since their Creation to obey yearly such Orders as the Divine Providence has prescrib’d them, and their Productions have daily been the same from one Age to another. The Earth is the same Matrix for the formation of Vegetables and Minerals, and the Sun has not refus’d its Influences for their Generation. What therefore can be the reason, or by what accident should we at present be depriv’d of so precious a Salt? We cannot see why it should be so lost as never to be repair’d; but it is also reported that the true Cinnamon, Bdellium, Costus Amomum, Balsamum verum, Malobathrum, Sal Armoniac, Myrrha, and several Minerals, Gums and Plants are lost, yet certainly it is not so, but only the Knowledge and Use of them lost to many People; or perhaps they may not be found in those places where they were wont to grow, yet may be had in others, which often happens; so that they do not entirely Perish, but only change their Soil, by which means it may come to pass they may not commonly be known, and sometimes it happens they appear with a different Face, by reason of the diversity of the Place and temperature of the Heavens; wherefore, as St. Chrisostom rightly concludes, none of those Substances or kinds of Things, which GOD has created from the beginning of the World, have ever been wanting or will ever perish. Et Benedixit illa DEUS, & dixit, Crescite & multiplicamini: Verbum enim illud in præsentem usq; diem illa conservat, & tantum Tempus præteriit, neq; unum horum Genus imminutum est; nam Benedictio DEI, & Verbum quod dixerat, ut subsisterent & durarent, illis contulit. And GOD Blessed them and said, Be fruitful and multiply: Which Word has preserv’d them even to this present Day, so that the Time only is pass’d away, but not the least kind of them has perish’d; for the Blessing of GOD, and the Words which he spake, made them that they should endure for ever.

The Nitre of the Ancients the same with our Saltpetre.

The Nitre therefore of the Ancients so renown’d, may be the same with our Saltpetre, as Schroder and the learned Etmuller think, and Clarke more particularly in his Natural History of Nitre, p. 12. asserts, That the Nitre of the Ancients is the same with Ours: In which, says he, altho’ we dissent from some learned Philosophers, as Matthiolus, Bellonius, &c. yet are there others as learned with whom we agree, such as Cardanus, Casimirus Siemienowicz Eques Lithuanus, and more particularly also may be mention’d the Ingenious Mr. Henshaw, who has learnedly prov’d this Assertion to the Royal Society. But not to inforce this Opinion only by Authority but Reason, we affirm this to be the same from its Nature; for the Thing is yet in Being, and this bearing its Name may not unjustly challenge its Nature: And that this was known to the Ancients (as we affirm their Nitre is to us) the Testimony of Pliny plainly evinces, as the before-mention’d learned Author Casimirus observes, viz. Aperte enim Salem hunc, qui in Cavernis sua sponte in Rupium Superficies erumpebat, Florem & Spumam Nitri, Salemq; petrosum vel Petræ nominat. But the Ancients seem not to observe this Ἀφρόνιτρον or Efflorenscence of Nitre on Walls, and in Houses on Floors, as we do, they having had it in open Fields, tho’ we have not, neither was it so much in use with them as with us, and this gave occasion for the new Name of Sal-petræ to be given to the old Nitre. Now, tho’ by Pliny’s and other antient Authors descriptions of Nitre, when compar’d with ours, they may seem to differ, yet may it not be a real difference, but only in degrees of purity, the like whereof we may see in Sugar and Salt, which by artificial Refining are made one and the same; and as it bears the same Name, so has it the same Qualities and Virtues, and was antiently us’d both by Galenists and Chymists. |Nitre us’d in Cookery.| Now it was this no doubt the Ancients us’d in their Aliments instead of common Salt; and ’tis by some affirm’d that Roots grow whiter if boil’d therewith, and Herbs greener: Moreover, ’tis well known to us Moderns that Nitre or its Salt, separated in the Refining, gives a red colour to Neats-Tongues, Coller’d Beef, Bacon, &c. adding to it also a more savoury Taste, which does thereby both invite and please the Appetite.

Thus far of Nitre according to the several Opinions of the before-mention’d Authors; but what the Composition was, wherewith the Ancients pickl’d the Body, whether with Nitre or Salt, is not as yet determin’d. Herodotus and divers others affirm it was salted with Nitre, yet some think the Virtue of Salt more commendable, finding it of so great use in preserving Flesh and Fish; others again do not think Bodies become unperishable by Salting, but are only preserv’d for some Months or Years, and if fresh Pickle be not added, or any part of the Body happen to be expos’d to the Air, it soon corrupts and stinks, for the Moisture of the Air dissolves the imbib’d Salt, and this issuing forth the Body soon perishes. This is farther remarkable from a Story of Baronius in his Annals, |A Body found Preserv’d in a Salt-Pit.| of a Body found in a Subterranean Cave, full of salt Water, in the Mountains of Saltzburg, which was whole and incorrupt, the Skin white, the Eyes open and lively, and the whole remaining, with all its parts, firm and hard as a Stone, yet in three Days Time, being as it were impatient of the Air, it turn’d into Water and perish’d. From this Story we may learn that salted Bodies, altho’ they resist Corruption for a short Time, yet at length perish; |Salt us’d with Balsamics preserves Bodies.| nevertheless Salt, or such things as are Analagous to it, if us’d with other Balsamics, afford some help in the Embalming of Bodies, whereby they are not dispos’d to the same Fluxion, as both Reason and Experience teach, and perhaps Nitre being a more solid Body and not so apt to dissolve in the Air, might also on that account be preferr’d by the Egyptians. However, whether Salt or Nitre be to be understood by this Work of Salination needs not much to be disputed, since both, by their known balsamic Virtue and innate Siccity, may assist in this Operation, even as in the preparing English Hams, &c. we are wont to use them mix’d together, the one perhaps being more peircing and the other more durable, the former to give a grateful Taste, and the latter a pleasant Colour. But, as we cannot readily grant, that the Salting us’d by the Egyptians, was effectual enough to preserve Bodies without Balsamic Medicines, so neither can we, that any means besides could hinder its Extraction or Dissolution, and therefore I am the more inclinable to think, First, That they did not drysalt the Body, but macerated it in a liquid Pickle, which equally surrounded it every-where, and peirc’d deeper thro’ the Pores of the Skin; and when they had let it infuse for a convenient Time, they anointed it with Oil of Cedar for 30 Days together, as Diodorus Siculus relates, and afterwards with Myrrh, Cinamon and other Drugs, which Salting and Anointing took up in all 70 Days, according to the Account of Herodotus. The latter Ointment was us’d as well to give the Body a sweet Smell as to Preserve it; but, tho’ the former was held of great efficacy for that purpose, yet is it a thing as difficult to recover in these our Times, says Penicher, as it is to find out the Composition of the Pickle we have been speaking of, nevertheless we must make some attempt therein. First then, we will take notice of the different Appellations, by which the Ancients have us’d to express this Matter, calling it by the several names of a Gum or Rosin, a Liquor or Juice, an Oil or Ointment, and lastly a Pitch; |Cedria what.| but which of all these they meant by the Word Cedria will be better understood from a Description of that Tree, together with the several sorts of Juices extracted from it, and their Uses and Virtues. ’Tis true, as some Authors have said, a Matter so call’d may be drawn from other Trees, such as Larch, Pine, Birch, Cypress and Juniper; but that which we mean is from the great Cedar, whose Leaves never fall, and which bears Fruit all the Year round. Its Wood, of all others, is esteem’d the least corruptible, and consequently, says Pierius, is the Hieroglyphic of Eternity. The Ark of the Covenant, the Temple of Solomon, and that of Diana at Ephesus, were all built with it, and for the same reason the Egyptians often made their Coffins of it: The Ancients also us’d to anoint the Leaves and Covers of their Books with its Oil, thereby to defend them from Moths, Worms and the injuries of Time, whence it came to be spoken Proverbially of such a one as had deserv’d to be recorded to Posterity, Cedro digna locutus, in that his Writings were thereby preserv’d from perishing. Now this Tree affords three or four different sorts of Liquors or Juices: First, A thick, but clear Gum, of a good tho’ strong Odour, being a Tear that drops from young Cedars after their Barks are pill’d off, and this is what they properly call’d Cedria. |Gum of Cedar.| Secondly, A sort of Liquor drawn from the said Wood, |Liquor of Cedar.| call’d by the Syrians Cedrum, and which are the first droppings of these Branches of Cedar when one burns them, for that which comes last is the Pitch of Cedar, |Pitch of Cedar.| being prepar’d after the same manner with other Pitch, as you may find describ’d in Bellonius de Medic. Funer. p. 40. Lastly, There is an Oil of Cedar, |Oil of Cedar.| express’d from the warm’d Fruit of this Tree, and call’d by Pliny and Delachampius, Cedrelæon, as it were Cedri-oleum. These several Liquors have been so confounded by Authors, as to have been taken indifferently for one another, which perhaps was because they have almost all the same Virtues; yet I suppose the Egyptians might adapt the Use of them according to their several Consistencies, and therefore employ’d the Gum with other Drugs in stuffing the Body, the first distill’d Liquor in their Injections, and the Oil, as more valuable, for their Anointings; or else might use the Tar or Pitch after the same manner as Asphalt and Pissasphalt, for the inferior sort of People. |Virtues of Cedar.| Now in respect to the Virtues of Cedar, besides that it heats and drys powerfully, it has likewise this particular and remarkable Quality, that after the nature of Septic and Escharotic Medicines, it corrodes and consumes the Flesh in a very short Time, if apply’d to a living Body; but, on the contrary, is a sovereign Preservative for the same Body the very moment ’tis depriv’d of Life; for consisting of hot, dry and subtil Parts, it consumes all superfluous Humidity, the cause of Putrifaction, and thereby preserves the dead Body, whereas in living Creatures, being rarify’d and put in action by the natural Heat, it disunites their Parts and consumes them. Those antient Physicians Dioscorides, Galen, Paulus, Aetius and Aegineta have all asserted, That the Nature of Cedar was such as to preserve dead Bodies, but would consume the Living, whereupon, they not without reason have term’d it, The Life of the Dead, and The Death of the Living. Likewise Diodorus Siculus tells us, the Egyptians anointed the Bodies they were to Embalm with Oil or Ointment of Cedar, for the space of 30 Days; whereas, Herodotus gives us a quite different Account, how that, without cutting open the Belly and pulling out the Entrails, |Clysters of Cedar and their Operation.| they injected up the Anus Clysters of Oil or Juice of Cedar, and then salted the Body 70 Days, at the end of which they squeez’d out the Clysters, which had such Virtue and Efficacy, that they brought away with them all the Guts and Bowels wasted. But in answer to this, Clauder in Methodo Balsamandi, p. 58. says, he cannot but believe that this Author had forgot to mention somewhat necessary to be done besides, and Nardius laughs at it as a ridiculous Story, to imagine how these Clysters should spare the fleshy Parts, but rot the Bowels. But grant an intire Efficacy to this Balsamic Liquor, thus Clysterwise immitted into the Intestins, yet since it is well known to Physicians, that Medicines, this way exhibited to the Dead, immediately flow out again, the nervous and fibrous Parts, which before were us’d to retain them, operate no longer by reason of their Stupor and defect of Spirits. I cannot see, says Clauder, how a Clyster can be contain’d in a dead body so as to perform its Work, or if it should be intruded up by force, it cannot so quickly penetrate to the superior Parts; for it must waste the Mesentery, Liver, Spleen, Stomach and Guts before it can ascend into the Cavity of the Breast, by which time its Contents will be putrify’d, and that more-especially since nothing besides was done to prevent Corruption, but an external Salting. Wherefore, as was said before, he must needs have mistaken the Process, and perhaps if Bodies were Embalm’d this way with Cedar (which Nardius utterly denies) without Incision and Exenteration, it might be perform’d by filling the Head, Breast and Belly with Pitch of Cedar (the way of doing which I shall hereafter show) and then infusing and macerating the Body in its liquid Juice or Oil: And that the Egyptians us’d to Embalm Bodies with Cedar, appears farther from their preserving Crocodiles, Hawks and other Animals, |Animals Embalm’d with Cedar.| which they worshipp’d, with Nitre and the Liquor of Cedar, and afterwards anointing them with odoriferous Unguents, they bury’d them in Sacred Places: Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 5. cap. 2. says, the Gauls were wont to deposite the Heads of their slain Enemies, that were of any Quality, in Chests, having first Embalm’d them with Oil of Cedar, &c.

The third sort of Embalming, us’d for the poorer sort of People, was perform’d, as Herodotus tells us, by washing the Belly, and then drying it with Salt for 70 Days, after which ’twas deliver’d to be carry’d away. Now, as Clauder says, if this was done without Exenteration, it appears the least probable of all, as daily experience shows; therefore we must look on that Historian as too credulous in the Relation of some Things, and perhaps as one that had forgot other Operations to be done, or medicinal Species to be added: But if the Belly was open’d and thoroughly wash’d and cleans’d, the Bowels flung into the River or else bury’d, and the Vessels empty’d of their Blood and Juices, and then the Body salted and dry’d in the Sun, it might probably be render’d very hard and durable, and not liable to dissolve or melt by any Damps or Moisture, Egypt being a warm Country, and enjoying a perpetual Serenity of Air, even as Flesh and Fish when salted and dry’d in the Wind, Sun or Smoak, &c. may be preserv’d for some Years, if kept in a dry and warm place. Diodorus Siculus speaks nothing of this third sort of Embalming, and Gabriel Clauder, Johannes Nardius, Bellonius, and other Physicians assert, there were only two sorts, |Only two sorts of Embalming.| one for the Rich and Noble, perform’d after a more accurate and costly manner, and another more vile for the poorer Sort; for Nardius is of Opinion, that which was suppos’d to be perform’d with Cedar, was only a cheat of the Libitinarii to pick the Pockets of the richer People; the first sort being perform’d with odoriferous Gums and Spices, and the latter with a strong scented Bitumen call’d Asphalt, or for want of that with Pissasphalt, which things are not mention’d in the Accounts of Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus relating to Embalming; yet from the occular Demonstration of several eminent Physicians, and their Experiments and Dissections of such Bodies as are commonly brought over for Mummies, it is plainly prov’d they were prepar’d with this Bituminous Matter, therefore we will next describe what that is. Now seeing Authors so much confound Asphalt with Pissasphalt, and thereby become mistaken even in the word Mummy, I think it very necessary to show their differences, they being two sorts of Bitumen that were commonly us’d by the Egyptians in their Embalmings.

Asphalt.

First then of Asphalt, a natural Bitumen of a viscous and glutinous Substance, which swims on the surface of the Lake Asphaltites in Palestine (above 100 Miles from Damiata in Egypt, whereas Le Bruyn is grosly mistaken when he makes it but two Italian Miles, as before quoted, p. 143.) and being driven by the Winds on the Shoar, there condenses by the heat of the Sun, and becomes tough and hard like Pitch. There is also Bitumen found in several other places, as Dioscorides relates, viz. in Phœnicia, Babylon, Sydon, &c. But this which comes from the Lake Asphaltites in Judea, thence call’d Bitumen Judaicum, is the best of all, being clean and shining, of a black or purplish Colour, of a strong Smell, and that may easily be burn’d and crumbl’d between the Fingers. With this Asphalt were Embalm’d those of a middle sort, |How us’d in Embalming.| but by reason it was of too dry a Substance, Naptha and liquid Bitumen, or Oleum Petroleum were usually added to it by melting over the Fire, and then the Body being boil’d therein, the Embalming was finish’d according to the accustom’d manner: To this purpose Authors give these Reasons for the use of Asphalt, that by its astringent and exsiccating Nature, it restrains that moisture which would lead to Corruption, and no less by its balsamic Quality and Viscosity hinders the fluid Atoms of the Air from penetrating the internal parts of the Body, thereby opening a way for its Dissolution. In like manner the poorer Sort were Embalm’d with Pissasphalt, made fluid by some of the above-mention’d Oils; and seeing likewise there were said to be two kinds of this, one Natural and another Artificial, we will next enquire into them:

Natural Pissasphalt.

The Natural Pissasphalt, according to Dioscorides, Valerius Cordus his Commentator, and others, is a kind of Bitumen flowing from certain Mountains call’d Ceraunii Montes in Apollonia, near the City Epidaurus, now Ragusa, whence being carry’d by the impetuosity of the River, it is cast on the Shoar and there condens’d into Clods, smelling like to a mixture of Pitch and Bitumen, from whence it came to be term’d by the Greeks Pissasphaltos, a πίσσα, vel πίττα pix, & ἄσφαλτος, Bitumen, quasi dicas Pici Bitumen, and had the same Virtues with Pitch and Bitumen or Asphalt mix’d together. ’Tis brought in great Plenty from Valona to Venice for pitching Ships, which it admirably performs if mix’d with the Pitch of Pine-Trees. ’Tis also brought from Dalmatia, being there dug near Lesina, not far from Narenta, and is likewise found in Hungary, where the Inhabitants call it Fossil Wax; moreover ’tis to be had in Transilvania, and the Germans name it Erdtwachs and Bergwachs, that is Wax generated in the Earth or Mountains. The Spaniards likewise call it, Cera de minera, mineral Wax, perhaps from its Consistency; but the Arabians term it Mumia, whence, it may be, Embalm’d Bodies came to be call’d Mummies, |Call’d Mummy.| from their being preserv’d with this Pissasphalt, and this we are the more apt to believe, since the true Asphalt or Bitumen Judaicum was very scarce, nor is it now to be had in the Shops, as some believe, but Pissasphalt is sold in its stead. Brasavolus thinks those dry’d Bodies of the Arabians and other Nations, brought to us from Syria and Egypt for Mummies, were only fill’d with Pissasphalt, inasmuch as being the poorer sort of People in those Countries, they could not be suppos’d to afford the expence of a better Embalment, for the Rich and Noble, whose Bodies were Embalm’d more costly with Myrrh, Aloes, Cinamon, Balsam, Saffron, and the like, were so carefully inclos’d in their private Sepulchres, that it was not only a very difficult matter to get at them, but also more rare to bring any of them over; whereas the Bodies of the Poor and Ignoble, stuff’d only with Pissasphalt, of so mean a price and after so slight a manner, were to be come at with little trouble and less suspicion. Thus the Syrians and Egyptians were wont to condite their Bodies, and the Arabians also, from what Matthiolus could learn from their Writings, esteem’d Mummy to be Pissasphalt rather than Asphalt, for, as Avicenna writes, Mummy performs the very same thing as Asphalt does, when mix’d with Pitch; from whence we may easily conjecture, that the Bodies were only prepar’d with Pissasphalt. |Bodies only prepar’d with Pissasphalt.| With this also Serapio agrees, who, discoursing of Mummy, according to the Authority of Dioscorides, delivers the very same words as he does of Pissasphalt, affirming, there is Mummy or Pissasphalt in the Land of Apollonia, which, descending from the Mountains by the course of the River, is cast upon its Banks, and there coagulated like Wax, having the Smell of Pitch mix’d with Asphalt, with some Fætor, and its Virtue is like to Pitch and Asphalt mix’d together, whence ’tis also thought our Mummy is rather Pissasphalt than Asphalt; for altho’ Strabo says, The Bitumen Judaicum was us’d for preserving Bodies, nevertheless he does not deny but they mix’d Pitch with Bitumen, which makes an artificial Pissasphalt; |Artificial Pissasphalt.| but Serapio and Avicenna knew these Mixtures very well, since not only the Syrians, but, their Countrymen the Mauritanians also made use of it. Also that which is sold to us for Mummy, is only the Body of an Egyptian, Arabian, or the like, Embalm’d with Pissasphalt, neither is it always properly so, says Struppius, for they sometimes us’d to lay the Bones of a Human Body in their proper places, and pour’d over them melted Pissasphalt, |Sophisticate Mummy.| which working into the natural form and shape of the Body, they sent over for Mummy, and such is that which is brought to us even at this Day, having no particle of Myrrh, Aloes, Balsam, &c. mix’d with it, as manifestly appears from its Smell, Taste and Colour.

Thus having shew’d how the Egyptians preserv’d their Dead after several ways, as by Salination with Aromatics, Salination with Cedar, Asphalt or Pissasphalt, and by Salination with Salt alone, according to the Accounts of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus and the Observations of other Persons upon them, I will next add some other Remarks concerning the Nature of their Embalmings, and the respective Works of the several Persons employ’d therein; likewise, the manner of Rouling, Painting and Dressing their Dead, with the Ceremonies of Judging them, ferrying them over the Lake, keeping them in their Houses, setting them at their Tables, pawning them, &c.

First then, we will suppose the Egyptians had a certain Temple or Office wherein all Things were kept in order for Embalming a Body, |An Office of Embalming.| to which there belong’d, and where there resided all sorts of Persons who perform’d any particular part of that Art, as Washing, Salting, Anointing, &c. or else prepar’d any kind of Necessaries for the Funeral Pomp. Now these were distinguish’d by the several Names of a Priest or Physician, an Embalmer or Surgeon, a Pollinctor or Apothecary, a Dissector or Anatomist, a Salinator or Salter and a Designer or Painter, also Νεκροκόσμος, a Dresser of the Dead, and Ἐνταφιαστής, one that furnish’d all Necessaries for the Funeral, and bury’d the Body, being call’d in Latin Libitinarius: That there was such an Office, appears not only from these several Persons, mention’d by Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, who were employ’d therein, and either profess’d the Art of Embalming, or perform’d some other part belonging to the Funeral Pomp, but is also prov’d from their saying, That the dead Body was carry’d out to be Embalm’d, which plainly implies some certain place allotted for that purpose. First therefore, we will suppose there belong’d to this Office a Clerk, |The Clerk.| who shew’d, the Friends of the Deceas’d, Patterns of all sorts of things belonging either to the Libitinarii or Furnishers of the Funeral, or to the Curatores Corporis, the Embalmers, who having agreed with them after what manner, and at what Price they would have it done, enter’d it into a Book, and took care to see it perform’d accordingly. The President or Head of this College, we take to be one who was both a Priest and Physician, |The Physician.| and therefore was highly Honour’d, and had in the greatest Esteem and Respect. As a Priest he was qualify’d to instruct the several Officers in all Funeral Rites and Ceremonies, and confirm the People in the Metempsychosis, upon which those Matters were grounded: As a Physician, being skill’d in the Art of Embalming, and the Nature of all Vegetables and Minerals, he prescrib’d balsamic Medicines and odoriferous Unguents for the Apothecary to compound and apply pursuant to his Directions, and instructed the Surgeon how to perform the manual Operation. That there was a Physician made use of in Embalming, appears very plainly from the Second Verse of the 50th Chapter of Genesis, where Moses, speaking of the Death of Jacob, says his Son Joseph commanded his Servants, the Physicians, to Embalm his Father, and the Physicians Embalm’d Israel; where by his Servants, the Physicians, seems to be meant either those properly belonging to his Person, it being antiently a Custom for Princes and Noble Men to have such in their Families to wait upon and take care of them, or by the Repetition The Physicians Embalm’d Israel, might be meant those of the Office, since Joseph, being Viceroy of Egypt, might well command them, they being all his Servants and in subjection to him. |Embalming of Jacob.| This leads me to digress a little in order to give a further Account of the Embalming Jacob, whereby will appear how far those Heathen Writers before-mention’d agree with the Scripture. First then there was a great necessity for Embalming Jacob, by reason his Body was to be carry’d a great way to his Sepulchre, and both Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus tell us, there were those in Egypt that profess’d the Art of preserving Bodies from Corruption, which ’tis plain was part of the Physicians Emploiment, for the word Ropheim (which we Translate Physicians) constantly signifies in Scripture such as cur’d or heal’d sick Bodies; but the LXX. here aptly enough Translate it Ἐνταφιαστὰς, (those that prepar’d and fitted Bodies for their Interment by Embalming as we, says the Bishop of Ely, likewise Translate it) because that was their proper Business; whence ’tis Pliny, Lib. 11. chap. 37. says, Mos est Ægyptiis Cadavera asservare Medicata, ’Tis the Custom among the Egyptians to preserve dead Bodies by the Physicians Art. In this Art they excell’d all the World besides, Bodies of their Embalming remaining entire even to this Day, and no question but Joseph, who spar’d neither Cost nor Pains, had his Father Embalm’d after the noblest manner. |Perform’d in Forty Days.| And Forty Days were fulfill’d for him (for so are fulfill’d the Days of those that are Embalm’d) and the Egyptians Mourn’d for him Threescore and Ten Days, ver. 3. That is, Forty Days were spent in Embalming him, which could not be finish’d in a shorter Time, for Diodorus Siculus tells us of several Officers that were employ’d about it one after another, and that they anointed the dead Body with Balsam of Cedar for above 30 Days, and afterwards with Myrrh, Cinamon, and the like, which might make up the residue of 40 Days: But Herodotus differs from him in this, by adding 30 Days more for Salting the Body with Nitre, which makes in all 70 Days, the full Time of their Mourning, |The Time of their Mourning.| they being accustom’d to spend all that Time, which they were Embalming the Body and preparing for the Funeral, in Mourning, the manner of which we have before describ’d, p. 241, 243, 245, 247. so shall here only farther take notice what some object, that this Mourning was immoderate, having more of Ambition than Piety in it; to which Jacobus Capellus answers, That granting it be true, that Joseph did not bring in this Custom, and had peculiar Reason to follow what he found in use, that they might be more condemn’d who vex’d the innocent Posterity, on whose Parent they had bestow’d Royal Honours; there is besides something due to Kings and great Men to distinguish them from common People. Now when the Days of Mourning were past, that is 70 Days, Joseph went up to Bury his Father, and with him went up all the Servants of Pharaoh, the Elders of his House, and all the Elders of the Land of Egypt, |Funeral Procession.| ver. 7. The principal Persons in Authority and Dignity throughout the whole Country, as well such as were Governors of Provinces and Cities, Counsellors, &c. as such as were principal Officers at Court. And all the House of Joseph, and his Brethren, and his Fathers House, ver. 8. And there went up with him both Chariots and Horsemen, v. 9. as a Guard to him, which ’tis likely always attended him, as Viceroy of the Kingdom, but now might be necessary for his safety as he pass’d thro’ the Desarts. And it was a very great Company. That he might appear in great State at such a Solemnity. When they came beyond Jordan they mourn’d with a great and very sore Lamentation seven Days, the Time of public Mourning among the Jews in succeeding Ages, as appears from several Instances, particularly, 1 Sam. 31. 13. Eccl. 22. 13. Judith 16. 20. Moreover this shows the Lamentation was so exceeding great, that the Place where it was made was afterwards call’d Abel-Mizraim, |Abel-Mizraim.| that is, The Mourning of the Egyptians. But how they bury’d Jacob when they came into Canaan, as also concerning the nature of the Cave wherein they laid him, see the Bishop of Ely’s Notes on the 50th Chapter of Genesis, from whom I have chiefly extracted this; and other Commentators, for I think it high time to return to the Embalming of the Egyptians, according to the propos’d institution of an Office, in which having already shown the respective Emploiments of the Clerk and Priest or Physician, we shall next proceed to speak of the Surgeon or Embalmer, and of all other inferior Officers under him, such as the Dissector, Emboweller, Pollinctor, Salter, and other dependant Servants, as Dressers of the Dead, Painters, Carvers, and the like.

The Surgeon.

The Surgeon, who was the chief Embalmer, generally directed and took care to see the several Operations perform’d in due order, and sometimes did them himself; for tho’ the Curatores Corporis, that were his Assistants and Servants, commonly Dissected, Embowell’d, Wash’d, Anointed and Embalm’d the Bodies of the meaner sort of People, yet when any Prince or Nobleman was to be Embalm’d, after the richest and most curious manner, he perform’d the chief part of the Work himself, and this he was the more capable of as being both an exquisite Anatomist, and well vers’d in the Nature of all Balsamic Medicines, whether Galenical or Chymical, and tho’ he might be something inferior to the Physician, yet in conjunction with him, was he both the better able to consider the Nature of the deceas’d Person’s Distemper, or Cause of his Death, and accordingly to proceed in his Embalming; and lastly, he was very dextrous and knowing in the Art of Bandage, whereby it appears his chief Business was to Embalm and Roul up the Body, which, in respect to its being thus preserv’d by Balsamic and Medicinal Ingredients, artificially and topically apply’d, was said to be Corpus Medicatum, |Corpus Medicatum.| a Body preserv’d from Putrifaction by Embalming. Now I cannot imagine, as some Authors affirm, they did this always in one road or manner, but that the Physician vary’d his Prescriptions, by adding one thing and subtracting another, increasing the quantity of one Ingredient or diminishing that of another, according to the Constitution of the Person, and Nature of his Disease, agreeable to which was the Embalming perform’d; for ’tis certain some Medicines are more prevalent against Putrifactions than others, and that there ought to be a difference, as well, in the Composition of the Medicine, as in the Embalming one that dy’d only thro’ a natural Decay, one that dy’d of some malignant Distemper, or one that dy’d of a Hectic Feaver, which consumes and dries up the radical Moisture of the Body, and one that dy’d of a Dropsie, which colliquates the Body and makes it fluid with its Waters. In a word, there ought to be a difference even in an old Body and a Young; therefore, as the Doctor’s Prescriptions were vary’d, according to these Considerations, so was there a greater occasion for a skilful Apothecary, to take care of and see to the compounding the Aromatic Powders, Oils, Balsams, Ointments, Cerecloths, Tinctures, Spirits, and the like analogous Things, and their Application, according to the Directions of the Doctor; and as the Surgeon had under him a Dissector, &c. |Dissector.| who embowell’d and wash’d the Body, and did the like inferior Businesses, so had the Apothecary Servants under him to make up the Medicines, administer Clysters and Injections, and to Anoint the Body, thence call’d Pollinctors. |Pollinctor.| Thus was the chief Concern of the Embalming a Body manag’d by the Advice and Assistance of the Physician, Surgeon and Apothecary, as indeed it ought also to be perform’d at this Day, and not to have ignorant Undertakers direct and act all things at their pleasure. But when Bodies were to be Embalm’d without Gums, Spices, Cedria, Asphalt, Pissasphalt or the like, such as the poorest People, who could not be at the expence of them, they were chiefly committed to the Care of the Taricheutæ or Salitores, |Taricheutæ Salitores.| who only prepar’d and dry’d them with Salt, and then such Bodies were call’d Corpora Condita, pickl’d or salted Bodies. |Corpora Condita.| Thus having shown the principal Persons of this Office, and who directed and perform’d the Embalming, we will next give an account of those that provided all things necessary for the Funeral. These were such as the Greeks call’d Ἐνταφιαστής, |Ἐνταφιαστής,| he that got the Body ready and prepar’d all Necessaries for the Interment; |Ἐνταφιοπώλις.| Ἐνταφιοπώλις, he that sold all Matters appertaining to Funerals, and Νεκροκόσμος the Dresser, |Νεκροκόσμος,| or one that put on the Ornaments of the Dead: But all these were term’d by the Romans in general Libitinarii, |Libitinarii.| the Undertakers and Furnishers of Funerals, who had the Care of preparing, letting out or selling the Ornaments and Dresses for the Dead, and of providing Mourners, mourning Habits, and whatever else was necessary for the Funeral Pomp; nay who eas’d the afflicted Friends of their Trouble. They were thus nam’d from Libitina, a Goddess whom the Ancients believ’d to preside over Funerals, and some took to be Proserpina, but others Venus, thereby to show, that as she was at the beginning of Life by Generation, so was she likewise at the end or conclusion thereof, inasmuch as in her Temple were kept and sold all things necessary for Funeral-Solemnities. Other Officers were the Herald, Painter, Carver, &c.

The Herald.

The Herald’s Business was to proclaim and give notice of the approaching Funeral, to summon and invite the Company, and lastly to marshall them in the Funeral-Procession, according to their respective Dignities and Quality. |Painter.| The Painter was to gild or paint the Body and Coffin, with Hieroglyphic Characters, &c. |Carver.| And the Carver to make the Models of Wood that were to be shown to the deceas’d Person’s Friends, to denote that they Embalm’d Bodies three several Ways, and at as many different Rates; they likewise wrought the Coffins into the shape and form of the Deceas’d. But we shall speak more of these in their order, after having first given some Particulars relating to the several Methods of the Egyptian Embalming, not hitherto so fully describ’d. |Embalming with Cedar.| First then, we believe the manner of Embalming with Cedar might probably be invented to satisfie such whose Consciences would admit of no Dissection at all, and the most likely Method of performing it was by injecting into the Brain, thro’ the Nostrils, into the Thorax, thro’ the Aspera Arteria, and into the Stomach and Intestines, thro’ the Oesophagus and Anus, Oil of Cedar, by the help of a Siringe and Dilator. This being a subtil, hot, and rectify’d Oil of a Caustic Nature, wasted and consum’d the Bowels like to quick Lime, and then the Body being hung up or plac’d in a declining posture, they press’d and squeez’d out the said Oil, which brought away with it the Bowels wasted. Then the Corps being wash’d and cleans’d, they again injected into all the Cavities and Venters, as much as they could of a Balsam distill’d from the Pitch of young Cedars, which being depriv’d of its corrosive and subtil Oil, had nothing of a Caustic Quality remaining in it, but consisted only of drying, exsiccating and Balsamic Parts. Then they laid the Body in Pickle for 70 Days; after which, having wip’d it, they anointed it with a sweet and drying Ointment, which perhaps from the Basis of its Composition might be term’d Unguentum Cedrinum, |Unguentum Cedrinum.| and then dry’d it in the Sun or otherwise, by which means all remaining Moisture, and the thinner and more subtil parts of the Balsam being evaporated, the Body became hard, firm and solid, like to a Colophony of Turpentine or Pitch.

Embalming with Pissasphalt.

The second Way of Embalming among the Egyptians was perform’d with natural or factitious Pissasphalt, just in the same manner as I shall show with Asphalt, but only the natural Pissasphalt was us’d for the midling sort of People, and the factitious for the poorer and common People and Slaves; nor was there any Curiosity in these more than the usual Exenteration, Salination and Coction in the Bitumens, for they neither us’d Roulers nor bestow’d Coffins on them.

The third sort, which was for the more substantial People, |Embalming with Asphalt.| was more costly and exact, and perform’d with Asphalt after this manner: The Corps being open’d, embowell’d, wash’d, cleans’d and salted after the usual Method, was put into a large Cauldron fill’d with Asphalt, or Bitumen Judaicum, made fluid with Naptha, and then boil’d ’till it had melted the Fat, and consum’d all the Humors and Juices which are the Principals of Corruption, by which means the soft parts of the Flesh were made firm, and the whole Body penetrated, and as it were pitch’d to the Marrow of the Bones, with this Bituminous Liquor. Then being taken out of the Cauldron, and swath’d up whilst it was yet hot, it at length became petrify’d and hard like to Marble.

Embalming with Aromatics and Balsams.

The fourth and last way is both Noble and Expensive, and was perform’d to the utmost Perfection, Art and Skill. The Brain being extracted, and the Thorax and Abdomen releas’d of their Viscera, all the Cavities were thoroughly cleans’d with aromatiz’d Wine, and then repleted with a Composition of Myrrh, Aloes, Cinamon, Opobalsamum, Saffron, and the like; after which, they sew’d up the Incisions, and salted the Body with Nitre for 70 Days, and then wiping and drying it from the Pickle or Salt, they anointed it with an Ointment made of aromatic, balsamic and odoriferous Ingredients, whence some Authors have call’d a Body so prepar’d, Funus odoratum. |Funus odoratum.| This done, they swath’d it up with Roulers made of fine Linnen, and dipp’d in some Balsam, Ointment or Cerecloth, which being dry, serv’d like Glue to stop the Pores, and hinder the Dissipation of the volatil parts of the Aromatics, as well as the Penetration of the Air. Guichard, cap. 10. p. 479. des Funerailles des Ægyptiens, thinks this Gum to have been Acacia, of which see Dioscorides, Lib. 1. cap. 134. & apud Mathiol. p. 115. But Bellonius and other Authors think the Gum which Herodotus says the Egyptians us’d instead of Glue was Cedria, besmear’d on the Roulers in manner of a Cerecloth: |Roulers how prepar’d, &c.| Others say the Body was first anointed with a Gum, and then wrapped up in fine Linnen, and Casalius de veter. Ægyptior. Ritibus, p. 30. says, Gummi Oleo inungebant, which is more agreeable to the Observations I have made, That the Roulers seem’d either dipp’d in Oleo seu Unguento Cedrino, or after the Body was anointed with it, roul’d up and finish’d, then that the Bandages were prepar’d after the manner of a Cerecloth, with Gum or Rosin of Cedar, because this would have made them hard and brittle, whereas those which I have seen, were pliable and free from any Gum or Embalming Matter adhering to them, and no ways different from other Linnen, but only of a Cinnamon or Snuff-Colour; so that probably they might dip or anoint them with the Oil or Ointment of Cedar, rather to make them lasting and durable than to stick to the Body; for Greaves tells us in his Pyramidographia, p. 50. that he had seen some of these Roulers so strong and perfect, as if they had been made but Yesterday. With these they bound and swath’d the dead Body, beginning at the Head and ending with the Feet. Over these again they wound others, so often one upon another, that there could not be less than a 1000 ells upon one Body. They interwove these Roulers so artificially and in such manner, says Kircher, as would puzzle the Ingenuity and tire the Industry of our Modern Surgeons to find out, yet, with submission to him, it may not be so difficult to perform by any one tollerably skill’d in the Art of Bandage as he imagines, for, as I take it, they began with the Feet and Hands, and ended with the Head, contrary to what Greaves asserts, tho’ I cannot say this of my own Knowledge, having never had any opportunity of unrouling such Bodies, but only offer the Consideration thereof, according to the appearance of the following Figures, of which the first shows the interior artificial Circumvolutions of the Roulers, the Body being first wrapp’d in fine Linnen, wherein Egypt excell’d, as the Holy Scriptures testifie, Prov. 7. 16. &c. The second Figure represents the manner of the next Rouling, and the fourth shews the external Ornaments, painted with Hierogliphics, &c. |Designer or Painter.| For when the Body was thus roul’d, the Designer or Painter cover’d the superficies of the Roulers with a kind of Paste or Gum, on which he gilded and painted Cyphers, Figures, Letters, Characters and other Hieroglyphics. The third Figure shows a Case to keep the Body in, made of Linnen, and painted in like manner with Hieroglyphics in distinct Colours, having been found in the Musæum of Johannes Nardius. Now concerning the nature and signification of these Hieroglyphics, |Hieroglyphic Characters.| Authors variously write; but none have taken so much Pains, or div’d so far into the meaning of them, as the Learned Kircher, who pretends to explain all the Hieroglyphic Characters painted on the Roulers and Coffins of the Mummies, in his Oedipi Ægyptiaci Theatrum Hieroglyphicum, where also, p. 412 and 414. you may find the particular Explanations of the third and fourth Figures. But since there remains no Alphabet or Dictionary of these Characters (for the entire Knowledge of Hieroglyphics perish’d at the Time the Egyptian Ceremonies ceas’d, and were abolish’d by the Irruption Cambyses made into Egypt) we believe all those assiduous Penetrations into these Mysteries by Kircher and R. P. Menestrier, are but imperfect Conjectures and meer Imaginations. However, having spoken of the Egyptian Language in no part of this Book before, it may not be amiss to insert here some few Particulars concerning it. |Two sorts of Languages and Characters.| First then, there were two sorts of Languages and Characters among the Egyptians; one common and us’d by all, constituted for their Trade and Commerce with Mankind, and which was that Tongue or Idiom call’d the Coptic or Pharonic, and the other us’d only by Priests, Prophets, Hierogrammatists or Holy Writers, and the like Persons in Sacerdotal Orders. The first was written from the Right Hand to the Left in Characters not unlike the old Greek; but the latter consisted not of Letters, Syllables or Words, but thro’ the Image and Pictures of Things, they endeavour’d to deliver their hidden Conceits in the Letters and Language of Nature. Thus by a representation of the several Parts and Actions of Man, the shape of Artificers Tools and Instruments, the form of all sorts of Animals, Beasts, Birds and Fish, the resemblance of the Sun, Moon, Planets and the like, they exactly read and understood every thing couch’d within those Hieroglyphics. For Example, the Crocodile was the Emblem of Malice; the Eye the Preserver of Justice and the Guard of the Body; the Right Hand, with its Fingers open, signify’d Plenty, and the Left, with its Fingers clos’d, Preservation and Custody of Mens Goods and Estates. To express their Eneph or Creator of the World, the Egyptians describ’d an old Man in a blew Mantle, with an Egg in his Mouth, which was the Emblem of the World, and express’d their Notion of Divinity by an Eye on a Scepter, by an Eagle’s Head, &c. Of which see more in Sir Thomas Brown’s Vulgar Errors, cap. 20. where he rightly observes, that of all Nations that suffer’d by the Confusion of Babel, the Egyptians found the best Evasion; for tho’ Words were confounded, they invented a Language of Things, and spake to each other by common Notions in Nature, whereby they discours’d in silence, and were intuitively understood from the Theory of their Impressions; for they assum’d the shapes of Animals common to all Eyes, and by their Conjunctions and Compositions were able to communicate their Conception to any that co-apprehended the Syntaxis of their Natures. This many conceive to have been the Primitive way of Writing, and of greater Antiquity than Letters; and this Language indeed might Adam well have spoken, who understanding the Nature of Things, had the advantage of Natural Expressions, &c. But to add two or three Examples more out of Orus: For Eternity the Egyptians painted the Sun and Moon, as Things which they believ’d to have had no beginning, nor were likely to have any ending; for a Year they painted a Snake with his Tail in his Mouth, to show how, one Year succeeding another, the World was still kept in an endless Circle; for a Month they painted a Palm-Tree, by reason at every new Moon that Tree sends forth a new Branch; for GOD they painted a Falcon, as well in that he soars so exceeding high, as that he governs the lesser Birds, for Integrity of Life they painted Fire and Water, both because these Elements are in themselves most pure, and by reason all other Things are purify’d by them; for any thing that was abominable to the Gods they painted a Fish, because in their Sacrifices the Priests never us’d them, and the like of which you will find innumerable Instances in Pierius’s Book of the Egyptian Hieroglyphics. Now what so great a number of these Sacred Characters inscrib’d on their Obelisks and Mummies signify’d, Authors seem to differ about, some looking on them as Charms and Necromancy, |Hieroglyphics, their Signification.| and others thinking they did thereby endeavour not so much to express as hide their Meanings, to amuse and awe the Vulgar; but I am more inclinable to think they always contain’d some History of the Life and Death, Virtues and Actions of the Deceas’d, or else some Religious Ceremonies, and the like; for Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. cap. 4. writes of Sesoosis, that he erected two Obelisks of polish’d Marble 120 Cubits high, on which were inscrib’d a Description of the large extent of his Empire, the great Value of his Revenue, and the number of the Nations by him conquer’d; and what sort of Writing this was, is explain’d a little before, where, speaking of the like Works, he says, he erected Pillars whereon were inscrib’d in Egyptian Letters call’d Hieroglyphics these Words: Sesoosis King of Kings and Lord of Lords subdu’d this Country by his Arms. Also Lib. 5. cap. 3. he writes of a Golden Pillar whereon were Letters inscrib’d, call’d by the Egyptians Sacred Writing, expressing the famous Actions of Uranus, Jupiter, Diana and Apollo, written, as they say, by Mercury himself, whom most Authors agree with him to have been the first Inventor of these Hieroglyphic Characters.

Dresses and Ornaments of the Mummies.

But to return to the manner of dressing and adorning the Embalm’d Bodies, such as is represented in Figure the 4th, where you may see the Image and Form of a Woman set off with various Ornaments, the signification of whose Hieroglyphic Characters you have explain’d by Kircher, in the Book and Page before-mention’d; we shall next proceed to give an account of an extraordinary fine Mummy which Pietro della Valle saw and describes in this manner, viz. That upon it was the Figure of a young Man, dress’d in a long Gown, gilded and sprinkl’d over with Hieroglyphic Emblems from Head to Foot, set off with precious Stones, with the Hair of his Head black and curl’d, and his Beard of the same colour, but short; a Chain of Gold hung about his Neck, having a Medal with the Image of the Bird Ibis on it, with many other Marks and Characters, which give us to understand this young Man was possess’d of great Dignities. In his Right Hand he held a Golden Bason full of red Liquor, and in his Left a Fruit somewhat resembling an Apple: He had a Gold-Ring on his Thumb, and another on his little Finger, likewise Sandals which cover’d the Soles of his Feet only, and were ty’d above the Instep with Straps or Latchets. On a Fillet or Rouler hanging at his Girdle, one might plainly read the word Eutichi, which signifies Good Time. By his side was a Woman yet more richly and mysteriously adorn’d, with an Ox, the Image of Apis or Isis, at her Feet. In a word, both these Figures were painted like to the Saints of the Ancients. When the dead Bodies of the Egyptians were Embalm’d, roul’d, painted and adorn’d after the manner we have describ’d, as you may partly see at Figures the first, second and fourth, they put them into Cases or Coffins made of Linnen pasted to a great thickness, or else of Wood carv’d in the similitude and likeness of the Person deceas’d, as you may see at Figures the third and fifth; the first of which shows the back part of a Linnen-Case for a Mummy, painted with several Colours, as is to be seen in the Collection of Johannes Nardius; and the other how a roul’d Body lies plac’d in a wooden Coffin, as may be seen in the Musæum of the Great Duke of Tuscany.

Coffins of Sycamore.

These Coffins were sometimes made of Cedar, but most commonly of Sycamore, a large Tree, very plentifully growing in Egypt and Judæa, which bears Leaves like to the Mulberry-Tree, but larger, and Fruit like to a Fig, not sprouting from the Branches, but from the Stock or Body of the Tree. ’Tis call’d by us the Egyptian Fig, by them Giumez. Its Leaves afford a pleasant shade, its Fruit refreshment to such as Travel in the Plains of those hot Countries, and its Wood serves not only for Coffins but Buildings. ’Tis also a Tree so lasting and well rooted, that the Sycamore which Zacheus ascended, is still shown in Judæa to Travellers, as is also the hollow Sycamore at Matarea in Egypt, where the Blessed Virgin is said to have remain’d for some Time, which tho’ it savour of the Legend, says Sir Thomas Brown in his Observations on Scripture-Plants, p. 12. yet it plainly shows what Opinion the Egyptians had of the lasting Condition of this Tree to countenance their Tradition, of which likewise they might not be without some Experience, since the Learned Greaves observes, p. 57. that the old Egyptians made Coffins of this Wood, of which there are many frequently found among the Mummies, very fair, entire and free from Corruption even at this Day, nay after the Revolution perhaps of 3000 Years. Of these Coffins Greaves tells us, p. 50. he had seen many fashion’d after the likeness of a Man, or rather resembling one of those Embalm’d Bodies, which, as we have describ’d before, are bound about with Fillets or Roulers, and wrapp’d in a Shroud of Linnen; for as in those there is the shape of a Head, with a kind of painted Vizard or Mask fastned to them, but without any appearance of their Arms or Legs, in like manner is it with these Coffins, the Lids of which have the shape of the Head of a Man, with a Face painted on it resembling a Woman, the residue being one continued Trunk. At the end of this Trunk is a Pedestal somewhat broad, on which it stood upright in the Reconditory, as Herodotus relates. Some of these Coffins are handsomly painted without with several Hieroglyphics; opening two of them he found within, over the Body, |Scroles painted with Characters, &c.| divers Scroles fastned to the Linnen-Shroud: These were painted with Sacred Characters, in Colours very lively and fresh, among which were, in a larger size, the Pictures both of Men and Women, some headed like Hawks, others like Dogs, &c. These Scroles ran either down the Belly and Sides, or else were plac’d on the Knees and Legs. On the Feet was a Linnen-Cover (and so were all the Scroles before-mention’d of Linnen, it being not lawful for them to use Woollen) painted with Hieroglyphics, and fashion’d like a high Slipper. On the Breast was a kind of Breast-Plate, made with folds of Linnen cut Scallop-wise, richly painted and gilt. In the midst of the bend at the top, was the Face of a Woman with her Arms extended, on each side, at the two outmost ends, was the Head of a Hawk fairly gilt, by which they represented the Divine Nature. Thus far Greaves. Moreover Thevenot, Bellonius, Nardius and others observe, |Several things found included in the Mummies,| that the Egyptians were wont to put within the Cavities of the Breasts and Bellies of their Embalm’d Bodies, such Things as they generally lov’d most in their Life-Time, viz. Books, Writings, Arms, Medals, Money and pieces of Antiquity, little Vessels, or any sort of antient Houshold-Goods; also little Idols and Images of the Gods which they Worshipp’d whilst alive, &c. Kircher tells us in his Oedipus Ægyptiacus Theatr. Hierogl. p. 420. that Nardius sent him two Roulers mark’d with Hieroglyphics, and roul’d up in the manner of a Scrole, taken out of the Breast or Belly of a Mummy; adding also that the Egyptians did not only look on such Hieroglyphics as Symbols of the greatest Secrecy, but also that they had a power to obtain Protection of those Gods to whom they were fastned, and that these Roulers signify’d nothing else but the Funeral Pomp, which was perform’d as magnificently as possible, especially if it were of a King, Priest or the like, the Explanation whereof see in the Page above-mention’d. Gulielmus Rondeletus, a Physician of Montpelier, kept as a great Rarity 20 Leaves of antient Paper, |as Papers,| taken out of the Breast of a Mummy, which was fill’d with old Arabic Letters, yet none could read it, tho’ the Jews of Avignon conjectur’d it contain’d the Life of the Deceas’d; but nothing is so commonly found in these Mummies, as Idols of various sizes, tho’ generally about half a Foot or a Span long, form’d either of Potters Earth, glaz’d or varnish’d and bak’d, or else of Stone, Metal, Wood or the like. Some of all these kinds Mr. Greaves brought over, and particularly mentions one cut out of a Magnes or Loadstone, in the form and bigness of a Scarabæus: See p. 48. of his Pyramidographia. Camerarius, Horar. subcisivar. Cent. 1. cap. 14. speaks more remarkably of those made of Brass, |Brass-Images,| affirming they were chiefly us’d in that manner, by reason they had great Virtue to preserve dead Bodies from Putrifaction, especially, since Pierius in his Book of Hieroglyphics witnesses, that Brass-Nails were stuck into the Body for the same purpose; but this is not to be credited by any one physically skill’d in the Virtues of Minerals, &c. We have more reason to believe these Idols were so plac’d out of Superstition, especially seeing many are the Figures of Isis, Osiris, and other Gods; nor did they only place them in the inside of dead Bodies, but also hung them there on the out-side, sewing them to the Roulers and Ornaments, and likewise plac’d them in their Sepulchres: These from their Office or Use were distinguish’d by several Names, |Averruncal and| such as Averruncal or Apotropæan Gods, so call’d because they were thought to avert Evil; |Prophylactic Statues.| others were term’d Prophylactic Statues or Portable Amulets, which they carry’d as Charms about their Necks, Arms and Girdles; and a third sort, in general Esteem among them, |Serapes.| were the Serapes, the same with what the Hebrews call’d Teraphim, the Latins, Penates and Lares, being Tutelar Gods, appointed to defend and keep certain Places, and some of these they carry’d along with them where-ever they went. Of this number were Osiris, Isis, Nepthe, Horus, Harpocrates, Arveris, Apopis and innumerable others of the like kind, which altho’ they were all in the Nature of Genii, and the same in Substance, differing only in their Effects, yet, says Kircher, as they were deputed to the Custody of private Things, so they obtain’d the Name of Tutelar Gods, and were accordingly Worshipp’d for private Deities. Thus some were Country-Gods, others Defenders of Cities, and a third sort Keepers of private Houses. There have been great numbers of these brought out of Egypt, of various sizes and compos’d of different Matter, such as Earth, Stone, Wood, Metal or the like, |Their Forms and Actions.| differing both in Form and Actions, some appearing like Mummies and roul’d up in the same manner, others with deform’d and threatning Countenances thereby to strike an awe and terrifie, to which purpose they held various Instruments in their Hands, such as Hooks and Harping-Irons, Sheilds, Whips, and the like; but all these kinds of Statues were adorn’d with Hieroglyphic Characters both before and behind, nay, some all over, whence they came to be call’d Polycharacteristic Statues, of which you may see above 50 several Figures, with their Descriptions, in Kircher’s Book before-mention’d, Syntagma 16, 17, 18 and 19. I shall here therefore only insert two Plates out of Johannes Nardius’s Annotations on Lucretius, whereof all the Statues and Figures were in his own Custody and Musæum, and of which the first Plate represents the foreside and backside of eight Wooden Images, without either Arms or Legs, adorn’d in a manner with the same Dresses, Ornaments and Characters as the Mummies, about a Cubit and half long, which the Egyptians were wont to place on their Tombs and Coffins, as may be seen at p. 203. The 9th Figure shews a Linnen Ornament for the Breast, distinctly painted with divers Colours, wherein was express’d the true way of opening Bodies in order to their Embalming; from which also appears, that they open’d the Thorax, tho’ neither Herodotus nor Diodorus Siculus make any mention thereof. The 10th Figure shews an Alabaster-Urn or Pot mark’d with Hieroglyphics, and fill’d with Asphalt, with which they us’d to Embalm their Bodies, and the 11th is the Cover of the Pot with a Dog’s Head on it.

The second Plate represents such Figures as the Egyptians hung on their Embalm’d Bodies, which were made of glaz’d and colour’d Earth, or else of Brass: The first nine are deform’d, with horrid Countenances, either of Men or Animals, some joyning their Hands, others bearing on their Knees, or else hanging them down. The 1st and 9th, which look most terrible with a Lion’s Countenance, represent the Mophtæi Genii; the 2d has the Face of the Dog Anubis; the 3d and 7th have the monstrous Beards of the Priests of Isis; the 4th and 6th are the Nepthæi; the 5th represents Horus, a Boy with a monstrous Head; the 8th has the Face of a Boy likewise, with a loop-hole on the Back, to sew it to the Mummies, as have also the 1st, 2d, 4th, 6th, 20th, 21st and 25th Figures, tho’ not altogether so conspicuous. The 12th and 14th, as also the 19th and 25th are the same, with the 1st and 9th, signifying the Genii Mophtæi; the 11th and 15th are the same with the 4th and 6th; the 16th, 21st and 23d carry great Stones on their Heads and Shoulders, as it were threatning to fling them at such as offer’d to disturb them, or else to bury them under them; the 10th is a Scarabæus; the 13th a Phallus occulatus, which they carry’d about with them as one of the greatest Amulets they could use against Sterility; the 17th and 18th are two Crocodiles, likewise carry’d along with them to appease Typhon; the 20th and 24th with Hawks Heads represent Osiris; the 22d is most monstrous of all, carrying a Bushel on its Head, all the Figure being compos’d of Head and Belly. It denotes Serapis, of whom they say there was a Statue in Alexandria of that Magnitude, that it touch’d both sides of the Serapian Temple; the 26th is Harpocrates holding his Finger on his Mouth, to shew the Silence religiously observ’d by the Egyptians in their Mysteries; the 27th is the Ox Apis, before describ’d p. 200, and the 28th the Statue of Isis, giving Suck to her Son Horus.

These were the true Phylacteric and Averruncal Statues of the Egyptians, some made portable with Handles, and others with a square piece of Wood proceeding from their Pedestal, whereby they were the better fix’d on Tombs. Some again were put within the Bellies of the Mummies, and others hung about the outsides of them, and that as well to preserve the Bodies from Putrifaction as the Sepulchres from Rapine, |Their Use and Virtues.| which they were suppos’d to effect by their Divine Power, or Magical Virtue, or else by their terrible and deform’d Countenances were thought to strike a Dread into every approaching Adversary.

Thus the Body being Embalm’d and adorn’d with Hieroglyphic Characters, magical Amulets, Statues and the like, and every thing else got ready for the Funeral, it was on the last Day or Time appointed for the Burial, put on board a Ship call’d Barris, and by the Ferry-Man, Charon, |Charon.| wafted o’er the Lake Acherusia; which lies on the South side of Memphis, where being landed on a Plain, the chief Burial-Place of the Egyptians, and which is fabl’d by the Greeks to be the Elysian Fields, they plac’d the Corps on a Bier, before the Mouth of the Sepulchre, when the Judges, Priests and common People surrounding it, |Manner of Judging the Dead.| one who was purposely appointed to rehearse impartially the Funeral-Oration, openly declar’d the Virtues, Vices and Actions, nay whole Life and Conversation of the Deceas’d, and after all the Evidences were examin’d (every one having a free power to accuse the dead Person) according to the majority of Votes and judgment of the Judges, the Corps was dispos’d of. If he had liv’d Virtuously he was honour’d with the greatest Praises and Commendations, and consequently magnificently Interr’d; but if Viciously, he was mightily exclaim’d against and depriv’d of Sepulture. This made even the Kings themselves to live uprightly, fearing so much as to anger the common People whilst alive, lest they should thereby incur their eternal Hatred after their Death. This Custom of the Egyptians examining and trying their Dead, Bossuet in his History of the World, p. 457, takes notice of as a very extraordinary kind of Judgment which none escap’d, affirming, ‘It was a Consolation at the Time of Death to leave their Names in esteem among Men, and of all Human Blessings, this was the only one which Death cannot ravish from us; but it was not suffer’d in Egypt to commend all the Dead indifferently, that was an Honour to be had only from a public Judgment. The public Accuser was heard, if he prov’d the Conduct of the Deceas’d bad, then was his Memory condemn’d and he depriv’d of Sepulture. The People admir’d the power of their Laws, which reach’d them even after Death, and every one being touch’d by the Example, was afraid to dishonour his Memory and Family: But if the Defunct was not convicted of any Crime, then had he an honourable Interment. They made his Panegyric, but medled not in the least with his Birth: All Egypt was Noble, and besides, they receiv’d no farther Commendations than what they had got by their Merits. Moreover, the Egyptians were very curious in Preserving dead Bodies: Thus their Gratitude to their Kindred became Immortal. Children, by seeing the Bodies of their Ancestors, call’d to mind their Virtues, which the Public had made such Acknowledgements to, and they were incited to love those Laws which had so recommended them to them. This Custom of Judging Kings after their Deaths, says he p. 457. seem’d so holy to the People of GOD, that they have always practis’d it. We read in the Scriptures wicked Kings have been depriv’d of the Burial of their Ancestors; and we learn from Josephus, that that Custom lasted even to the Time of the Asmoneans: This gave Kings to understand, that tho’ their Majesty put them above Human Judgments whilst alive, yet were they not above them when Death had equall’d them with other Men. Likewise our Author further adds, p. 454. That to prevent borrowing, which was the Parent of Idleness, Frauds and Branglings, the Decree of King Asychis did not suffer any to borrow, |Pawning the Dead.| but on condition he pawn’d the Body of his Ancestor to him of whom he borrow’d; and it was reputed both an Impiety and Infamy together not to redeem it so soon as ever he could, so precious a Pledge was it reckon’d, and he that dy’d before he had acquitted himself of that Duty, was deny’d Burial.’

Now how the Bodies, which are said to have been bury’d, were laid up, is somewhat difficult to determine, since Authors speak so variously of their Burial; for some say they were bury’d either in their private or proper Sepulchres, or else in a public Reconditory, and others say they kept the Dead in their Dwelling-Houses. Now which of these was most us’d by such as could indifferently afford the Expence of either, I will not pretend to determine, however, the great variety of Sepulchres, found even at this Day, plainly proves they bury’d in the Fields and Plains, whereas the other is but traditionally asserted, yet not altogether improbable to be done by so Superstitious a People, of whom it is reported that some, especially the richer Sort, put their Embalm’d Bodies in Cases carv’d after their own likeness, |The Dead kept in Houses,| and these they set up in their Halls or Parlours in great Order (perhaps in Niches) being very richly adorn’d, where they took great delight to see a long Race of their Ancestors, in a manner, with as great satisfaction as if they were alive, and they were Conversing with them. Nay, Herodotus, Pomponius Mela and Lucian assert, |and plac’d at Table.| they plac’d them at Table like Guests, and made merry with them by Eating and Drinking; yet, when they were necessitous, they scrupl’d not to give them as a Pledge for Money they borrow’d, yet then took particular Care, both punctually to pay the one and redeem the other: But as for such as bury’d their Dead out of their Houses and Villages, in the Fields and Plains, they built Sepulchres for them as noble as possible, some after one Fashion, and some after another, every one according to their own Fancy, or the Charges they could best spare; for they chose rather to have their Monuments magnificently built than their Dwelling-Houses, laughing at the Greeks and other Nations, who caus’d theirs to be rais’d with great expence like to Palaces, notwithstanding they were to live but a very little while in them, and at the same time neglected their Tombs, where they were to lye for a much longer Time. But the Egyptians acted just contrary; they despis’d the present Life, and took little care in building their Habitations, looking upon them only as so many Inns or Baiting-Places, where they were to Inhabit but for a Season, whereas the Glory of a future Life, that was to be procur’d by Virtue, they greatly esteem’d, and consequently spent their whole Care, Study and Riches about the magnificence of their Sepulchres, |Sepulchres call’d Eternal Houses.| which they call’d Sempiternal or Eternal Houses, looking upon the Time they were to dwell here on Earth as nothing, in respect of the stay they were to make in the Grave. And hence it is no Nation in the World has been so curious as the Egyptians in their Funeral Ceremonies, Preserving the Dead, and magnificence of Sepulchres, which, besides abundance of private Structures, those Obelisks at Rome and the Pyramids of Egypt, do not only testifie, but will for ever be numbred among the Wonders of the World.

These, Sir, are my humble Thoughts and Opinion concerning the Funerals of the Egyptians, which I entirely submit to your better Judgment, hoping you will pardon this Interruption of your precious Time from more weighty Concerns, and candidly accept the mean, but grateful Performance of,

SIR,

Your most Obliged and

Devoted Humble Servant,

Thomas Greenhill.

THE

Art of Embalming.

LETTER III.

To Doctor Hans Sloane, Secretary to the Royal Society, and Fellow of the College of Phisicians, London.

SIR,

In considering the Nature of the Egyptian Pyramids, Subterranean Vaults and Lamps, I not only found in them much Magnificence, but more Curiosity, insomuch that tho’ the first were justly reputed Wonders of the World, yet are the last as surprizing and unaccountable, even to the most inquisitive Naturalist, or expert Chymist. Now well knowing your incomparable Library contains the most curious Books wrote on this Subject, as also that your unparalell’d Musæum is furnish’d with a great variety of Lamps, Lacrimatories, Averruncal Gods, and the like Rarities, taken out of the Pyramids and Subterranean Places of Egypt, I thought it not only proper to beg your Patronage of the following Sheets, but likewise believ’d my self oblig’d to return such Acknowledgments for your many Favours as I was best able to make, in as much as you are both a great Promoter of Arts and Sciences in general, and have more particularly been pleas’d to encourage this Work of mine: But as to write a Panegyric on your Merit and Virtues would look too much like Flattery, so, entirely to pass them by without taking any notice of them, would no less savour of Ingratitude, therefore I must needs desire leave to say, That the Judgment of the Royal Society, Men of the most polite Learning in the World, in choosing you for their Secretary, is a sufficient Argument of your great Worth and acute Discernment; but your Candour will appear in nothing so much as in accepting this succinct Account of the Pyramids, Subterranean Vaults and Lamps of the Egyptians, whilst you have by you the Learned Mr. Greaves’s Pyramidographia, with the several Accounts of Licetus, Bellori, and other Writers about Lamps, &c. Now whereas in the foregoing Letter was fully shown the manner of preparing dead Bodies and rendring them durable, in this I chiefly intend to speak of the Sepulchres or Repositories wherein they were laid; for as much as the Egyptians did not only content themselves with Embalming their Dead, but likewise with equal Care provided Conditories that might be lasting as the Body, and in which it might continue safe from the Injuries both of Time and Men, because they religiously believ’d that so long as the Body indur’d, so long would the Soul continue with it, not as a quickning or animating Spirit, but as an Attendant or Guardian, and without going into any other Body, as otherwise they thought it would; so that after they had preserv’d the Dead from Putrifaction, they next entomb’d them in firm and stately Monuments, such as were at first those Mercurial Sepulchres of hard Marble of a Spherical Figure, as Strabo records, and those wonderful ones of the antient Kings of Thebes in Egypt, which Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. mentions, and such were also the Hypogæa, those Caves or Dormitories cut out in the Lybian Desarts, by the Egyptians of lower Quality, which are now term’d the Mummies. Of the same Nature likewise are the stately Pyramids built by their Kings, |Pyramids to what end built.| all being design’d to secure the Dead, after they were Embalm’d, from the Injuries of the Nile or Weather, the rapine of an Enemy or any voracious Animal; and that so the Soul might be still oblig’d to attend them: But besides this general Reason why these Reconditories were built, which was to preserve the Dead from all external Violence, |Why of a Pyramidal form.| there were two special ones why they were made in a Pyramidal form. The first was, in that this Figure appears most permanent and durable, as being neither so liable to be over-press’d by its own weight at top, nor to be undermin’d by the sinking in of Rain at the bottom, as other Buildings are. The second was, because these Structures were intended to represent some of the Egyptian Deities; for, in the most antient Times, Pyramidal Columns or Obelisks were worshipp’d as Images of the Gods, before the exact Art of Carving Statues was found out, and so as Isis Cornigera represented the Horns of the Moon, in like manner might these Pyramids represent the Rays of the Sun, which the Egyptians worshipp’d under the name of Osiris. As to the number of Pyramids to be seen in Egypt, |Their number.| Bellonius very much exceeds the Account given us by other Travellers, for he makes them above 100, whereas Greaves says there are not 20, and Prince Radzivil reckon’d but 17. Three of these are the most remarkable, being built on Africa side, |Scituation.| on a rocky and barren Hill, between the City Memphis and the Place call’d Delta, from the Nile less than four Miles, from Memphis six, and near to Busiris, a Village from whence People are wont to ascend up to them, Pliny Lib. 36. cap. 12. Le Bruyn has given us this Drawing of them, together with the Sphinx which he made on the spot, whilst the French Consul and some of his Company were refreshing themselves under its Shade.

These three Pyramids were not erected by the Israelites, under the Tyranny of the Pharaohs, as Josephus and some modern Writers affirm; for the Scripture says positively, the Slavery of the Jews consisted in making and burning Brick, whereas all these Pyramids were made of Stone. The first and greatest of them was built, |Who were the Founders of them.| says Herodotus, by Cheops (stil’d by Diodorus Siculus, Chemmis) who succeeded Rhampsinitus in the Kingdom of Egypt. He adds, that the Stones were dug out of the Quarries of an Arabian Mountain, and from thence carry’d to the Nile; that there were employ’d in the Work Ten Miriads or a Hundred Thousand Men, every Three Months a Myriad; that the whole Pyramid was finish’d in 20 Years, whereof 10 were spent in conveying the Stones to the Place of building.

The second Pyramid, like the first in respect to its Workmanship, but far inferior in regard of its Magnitude, was built by the Successor to Cheops, who was Cephren his Brother, as Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus agree.

The third Pyramid, less than either of the two former, was built by Mycerinus, Son of Cheops or Chemmis, says Herodotus. Other Writers give different Names to the Founders of these Pyramids; but this is what is most probable among their various Opinions, according to Mr. Greaves. Besides these three now in being, Herodotus mentions a fourth built of Brick by Asychis, who succeeded Mycerinus, and another in which Imandes was bury’d, at the end of the Labyrinth built by the 12 Kings of Egypt. Also long before any of these, Mœris in his wonderful Lake, had erected two Pyramids, one for himself and another for his Wife, both long since gone to ruine; but there are many yet standing in the Lybian Desart, whose Founders none of the antient Writers have ever nam’d. Among these one is no less worthy of Memory than either of the three former, it standing about 20 Miles distant from them, more within the sandy Desart, and appearing to have the same Dimensions, the same Steps without as the first has, to be of the same Colour, and to have an Entrance like it on the North side, which is barr’d up within, and so whatever is said of the first in respect to its out-side may be applicable to this last, therefore one Description may serve for both.

A Description of the first and fairest Pyramid.

The first and fairest of the three great Pyramids is scituate on the top of a rocky Hill, in the sandy Desart of Lybia, about a quarter of a Mile distant Westward from the Plains of Egypt, the height of the scituation giving Beauty as the solidity of the Rock does firmness to the Superstructure. The Basis is exactly four square, and the North side of it being measur’d by Mr. Greaves with a Radius of 10 Foot, was found to be 693 English Foot, and the Altitude being measur’d by its Perpendicular, was found to be 481 Foot; but if taken as it ascends inclining, then is it equal to the Basis, which is 693 Foot. To give a true Idea of the just Dimensions of this Pyramid, we must imagine on the sides of the Basis, which is exactly square, four equilateral Triangles mutually propending, till they all meet at the top as it were in a point; for so the Perimeter of each Triangle comprehending 2079 Foot, and the Perimeter of the Basis 2772 Foot, the whole Area of the Basis will contain 480249 square Foot, or about 11 English Acres of Ground, which is a Proportion so monstrous, that it might seem incredible were it not attested by the Ancients to be so much, and by some of them more. The Ascent to the top of the Pyramid, from all the sides without, is by Degrees or Steps; the lowermost Degree is near four Foot in height, and three in breadth, which goes about the Pyramid in a level: The second Degree is like the first, only it retires inward near three Foot; after the same manner is the third Row, and so the rest, rising like so many Stairs one above another to the top, which ends not in a point, but in a little flat, and is about 13 Foot broad, being cover’d with nine Stones, besides two which are wanting at the Angles. The Degrees by which we ascend are not of an equal depth, for some are near four Foot, others want of three, and the higher we ascend, the depth grows the less, and so in proportion does the breadth also. These rows of Stones are much impair’d by the Weather, yet every Step, which is but one single Stone, is at least 30 cubical Feet; the number of Degrees from the bottom to the top is 207 or 208. Some of the Ancients have reported, that this Pyramid casts no Shadow, which must be meant in the Summer-Time and at Mid-Day, for in the Winter Mr. Greaves saw it cast a Shadow at Noon. Thus far concerning the out-side or Superficies of the greater Pyramid, with the Figure and Dimensions of it; next Mr. Greaves gives a particular Account of what he found within it, of which, if the Ancients have been silent, he imputes it chiefly to a reverend and awful Regard mix’d with Superstition, in not presuming to enter those Chambers of Death, which Religion and Devotion had consecrated to the Rest and Quiet of the Dead. And first he tells us how he ascended on the North side 38 Foot, on an artificial Bank of Earth, when he and his Company enter’d, |The Entrance.| with Tapers in their Hands, thro’ a square narrow Passage three Foot broad and 92 long, the Declivity of which was gradually so strait, that they were forc’d, at the farther end, to creep on their Bellies. After this, having pass’d thro’ a place in which they found ugly large Bats above a Foot long, they enter’d the first Gallery, |First and second Gallery.| the Pavement of which was of white and pollish’d Marble, rising with a gentle Acclivity, being about five Foot broad, as many high, and 110 Foot long: At the end of this begins the second Gallery, a very stately piece of Work, and not inferiour, either in respect of the curiosity of Art or richness of Materials, to the most sumptuous and magnificent Buildings. ’Tis divided from the former by a Wall, thro’ which they pass’d stooping along a square hole, much about the same bigness as the entrance of the Pyramid, but of no considerable length yet level: At the end of this Hole on the right Hand, |The Well.| they found the Well mention’d by Pliny to be 86 Cubits in depth, into which, he probably imagines, the Water of the River Nile was brought by some secret Aqueduct, and Bellonius thinks, out of this Well the Workmen drew the Water which they drank, as likewise that it serv’d them to dilute the Mortar they us’d in the Masons Work of the Building; but others affirm, that after having descended 67 Foot strait downwards, there is a square Window which leads into a Grot or Cave dug out of a Hill found there, not of living or solid Stone, but of Sand condens’d and press’d together; it extends in length from East to West 15 Foot lower, and consequently 82 from the top. There is a Way dug in the Rock two Foot and half wide, whose descent downwards is very crooked the length of 123 Foot, at the end of which it is fill’d with Sand and Bats nastiness: As ’tis said a Scotch Gentleman found it out, of whom the Sieur Thevenot makes mention in his Travels. Le Bruyn thinks it probable, that this Well was made to let down the Corps into, that were put in the Cavities that are under the Pyramids, but would not venture the Experiment of going down to see. Greaves also thinks this Well was the Passage to those secret Vaults, mention’d, but not describ’d by Herodotus, which were hewn out of the natural Rock, over which this Pyramid was erected. This Well, says the former, is circular and about three Foot over; the sides of it are lin’d with white Marble, and the descent into it is by fixing the Hands and Feet in little open spaces, cut into the sides within, opposite and answerable to one another in a perpendicular. But by his measure, sounding it with a Line, he found it only 20 Foot deep, the rest, as he supposes, has almost been damm’d up and choak’d with Rubbage. Thence going strait forward the distance of 15 Foot, they entred another square Passage, opposite to the former and of the same bigness, the Stones being very massy and exquisitely joyn’d; this led, at the extent of 110 Foot, into an arch’d Vault or little Chamber, standing East and West, about 20 Foot long, 17 broad and 15 high: The Walls were plaister’d over with Lime, but the Roof was cover’d with large smooth Stones, which lay shelving and met above in a kind of Arch or rather Angle. Returning back the same way they came, and being out of this low and square Passage, they clim’d over it, and going strait on in the trace of the second Gallery, on a shelving Pavement (like that of the first) rising with an Angle of 26 Degrees, they at length came to another Partition, being 154 Foot distant from the Well below and the length of the Gallery. Here if we consider the narrow Entrance or Mouth of the Pyramid which descends, and the length of the first and second Galleries that ascend, all of them lying as it were in the same continu’d Line, and leading towards the middle of the Pyramid, one may easily apprehend the Reason of that strange Eccho within of four or five Voices, |A strange Eccho.| mention’d by Plutarch, or rather of a long continued Sound, as Mr. Greaves found by experience in discharging a Gun; for the Sound being carry’d thro’ those Passages, and finding no vent outwards reflects on it self, and causes a confus’d noise, which by degrees ceases. This Gallery is built of white Marble, cut very exactly into spacious squares and pollish’d; also the Roof and sides of the Wall are of the same Stone, so closely joynted as scarce to be discern’d by the most curious Eye, and tho’ the acclivity or rising of the Ascent make the Passage more difficult and slippery, yet is it nevertheless very beautiful. The height of this Gallery is 26 Foot, the breadth six, of which three are to be allow’d for the way in the midst, which is set and bounded on both sides with Seats (like Benches) of pollish’d Stone; each of these is above one Foot in breadth and no less in depth. On the top of these Benches near the Angle, where they close and joyn with the Wall, are little Spaces cut in right angl’d parallel Figures, on each side opposite to one another, intended, no doubt, for some other end than Ornament. In casting and ranging the Marble in both the side Walls, all the Courses, which are but seven, (so great are those Stones) lye and flag over one another about three Inches, as is better to be conceiv’d by Figure 2 at p. 314. than by any Description I can give.

Le Bruyn’s Description of the Gallery.

Le Bruyn in his Voyage to the Levant, p. 139. writes more particularly of this Gallery, after the following manner: ‘Being return’d, says he, from the Horizontal Way, which is on the right Hand, we enter’d the other on the left, which is six Foot four Inches wide, and rises also the length of 162 Foot. On each side the Wall is a Stone-Bench two Foot and half high, and pretty broad, which serves to take hold by in going up, to which the Holes that are made almost every step in the Wall, are of no small Service, yet are they altogether confus’d and without order. It is not known by whom they were made; but those that go to see the Pyramids are extreamly oblig’d to them however, for without these Holes it would be impossible to get up, and a Man must likewise be very strong and in health that can do so by the help of them, and the Stone-Bench by which one holds fast with one Hand while the other holds the Candle; add to this, that a Man must make large steps, because these Holes are six Hands breadth distant from each other. This Ascent, which cannot be conceiv’d without admiration, may well pass for what is most considerable in the Pyramids; for the Stones which compose the Walls are as smooth as Looking-Glass, and so well joyn’d together, that one would be apt to take them for one single Stone. The same may be said of the Pavement. The Roof is here exceeding high and so very sumptuous, that ’tis better to be represented than describ’d; I therefore made this Draft of it, while my Countryman Adrian van Bierbeck rested himself on the Bench that is on the left Hand, and some of our Company were already got up with their Lights into the Chamber where the Tomb or Sepulchre is, which gave me opportunity to take a view of all the Roof more at large.’

But to return to Mr. Greaves’s Account, he says, That after having pass’d this Gallery, they enter’d another square Hole of the same Dimension with the former, |Two Anti-Closets.| which brought them into two Anti-Closets lin’d with a rich and speckl’d sort of Thebaic Marble. The first of these had almost the same Dimensions as the second. The second was thus proportion’d: The Area was level, the Figure of it oblong, the one side containing seven Foot, the other three and a half, and the height was of 10 Foot. This inner Anti-Closet was separated from the former by a Stone of red speckl’d Marble, which hung in two Mortices (like the Leaf of a Sluce) between two Walls, more than three Foot above the Pavement, and wanting only two of the Roof. Out of this Closet they enter’d another square Hole of the same wideness and Dimensions with the rest, and near nine Foot long, all of Thebaic Marble most exquisitely wrought, which landed them at the North end of a very sumptuous Room. The distance from the end of the second Gallery to this Entry is 24 Foot. |A spacious Chamber| This rich and spacious Chamber, in which Art may seem to have contended with Nature, the curious Workmanship being not inferiour to the rich Materials, lies about the Center of the Pyramid. The Floor, Roof and Sides of it are all compos’d of vast Tables of Thebaic Marble, very gracefully siz’d and plac’d. The nine Stones which cover the Roof are of a prodigious length, like so many huge Beams traversing the Room, and supporting the prodigious mass of the Pyramid above: The length of this Chamber is about 34 Foot, the breadth 17, the height 19 and a half. |wherein stands Cheops’s Tomb.| Within this glorious Room stands the Monument of Cheops or Chemmis, of one piece of Marble, hollow within, uncover’d at the top, and sounding like a Bell, without any Sculpture or Embossment. But ’tis the common Opinion, after Diodorus Siculus, that neither Chemmis nor his Successor Cephren were bury’d in their Pyramids, because, says he, the People being over work’d by them with hard Labour, threatned to tear their dead Bodies to pieces, and throw them out of these Sepulchres, therefore they on their Death-Beds commanded their Servants to bury them in some obscure Place, Diod. Lib. 1. This Monument is of the same Thebaic Marble with the whole Room, being speckl’d with black, white and red Spots, and resembling two Cubes finely set together, and hollow’d within. ’Tis seven Foot three Inches and half long, in breadth and depth three Foot three Inches and three quarters on the out-side, but within ’tis something less, which shows that the Men of this Age are of the same Stature with those that liv’d near 3000 Years ago, tho’ some famous Men have thought the contrary. If any ask how this Monument could be convey’d into this Chamber, since ’tis impossible for it to enter by those narrow Passages in the Pyramid which lead to it, I answer, It must have been rais’d and convey’d up from without by some Engine, before the Chamber was finish’d and the Roof clos’d: Thus far Greaves. Sandys, p. 99. says, This Pyramid which is the greatest of the three, |How many Workmen employ’d in the Building it.| and chief of the Worlds VII Wonders, employ’d 366000 Workmen continually in building it for the space of 20 Years, in which Time they consum’d in Radishes, Garlick and Onions only, 1800 Talents. Nor has Time, which devours the proudest Structures, humbl’d this lofty Edifice, tho’ ’tis very probably conjectur’d to have stood 3300 Years, and is now rather old than ruinous, yet the North side is most worn by reason of the humidity of the Northern Winds, which are here the moistest.

The second Pyramid.

The second Pyramid is hardly distant the flight of an Arrow from the first, and is all built of Stones of a whitish colour, nothing so large as those of the first. The sides rise not by Degrees or Steps like those of the former, but are smooth and equal, and the whole Fabrick seems very entire, except on the South-side. Tho’ this Pyramid is generally thought to be inferiour to the first in Magnitude, yet by Mr. Greaves’s Observation, the height and sides of the Basis are in both equal. There is no Entrance into it, and therefore none can tell what Chambers it contains; ’tis bounded on the North and West by two very stately and elaborate Structures, being 30 Foot deep, and more than 1400 long, cut out of the hard Rock, and squar’d by a Chizzel, |Lodgings of the Priests.| which are suppos’d to be the Lodgings of the Priests. They run along at a convenient distance, parallel to the two sides of this Pyramid, and meet in a right Angle. The Entrance into them is by square Openings, hewn out of the Rock, and much of the same bigness with those of the first Pyramid. The hollow space within is somewhat like a square and well proportion’d Chamber, cover’d and arch’d above with the natural Rock: In most of these there was a Passage opening into some other Apartment.

The third Pyramid.

The third Pyramid is from the second about a Furlong, and tho’ it appears at a distance to be of an equal height with the two former, by reason of the advantage of its Scituation upon a higher rise of the Hill, yet is it really much lower, each side of the Basis being but 300 Foot long, which wants near 400 of the two others. All the antient and modern Writers generally agree, this Pyramid was made of black Ethiopic Marble, whereas Mr. Greaves assures us, on his own Inspection, the whole Mass seems of a clear and white Stone, somewhat choicer and brighter than that in either of the two other Pyramids; but what the Stone within may be no Body can tell, since there never was any Entrance into it. At some distance South-East of the biggest Pyramid stands the Sphinx, so famous among the Ancients: |The Sphinx.| ’Tis a Statue or Image cut out of the main Rock, representing the Head of a Woman with half her Breast, but is at present sunk or bury’d in the Sand to the very Neck: It is an extraordinary great Mass, but withal proportionable, altho’ the Head of it self be 26 Foot high, and from the Ear to the Chin 15 Foot, according to the Measure the Sieur Thevenot took of it. At a distance it seems five Stones joyn’d together, but coming nearer one may discover what was taken for the Joynings of the Stones, was properly nothing but the Veins in the Rock. Pliny says, this serv’d for a Tomb to King Amasis, which is not improbable, since it is in a Part which was formerly a kind of Burying-Place, and near the Pyramids and Caves, which were nothing but Places of Sepulture; and that according to his Calculation it was 102 Foot in compass about the Head, 62 high and 143 in length, for the Body of it is suppos’d to resemble a Lion or Dog. Some will have it a certain Egyptian King caus’d this Sphinx to be made in Memory of Rhodope of Corinth, with whom he was passionately in Love. They say, among other Things, that when they consulted it at the rising of the Sun, it answer’d like an Oracle; yet most believe this was done by the cunning of the Priests, thro’ means of some hidden Pipes or Conduits under Ground, and that the Well we describ’d in the great Pyramid was made use of for the same purpose; but what makes this appear to be fabulous is, that there is no perforation or opening either at the Mouth, Nose, Eyes or Ears. Many other the like Stories Authors have rais’d of this Statue, affirming that by the Figure of a Sphinx, was represented the Goddess Momphta, |It represented Momphta.| who presided over all the Waters, and chiefly preserv’d and supply’d the Causes of the Over-flowing of the River Nile; as also that thereby was signify’d the State or Condition of that River, for as the Over-flowing of the Nile continues all the Summer, and during the Time of Harvest, viz. in the Months of July and August, and that in those two Months, the Sun commonly runs thro’ the two Signs of Leo and Virgo, it was natural enough for the Egyptians, who had a great inclination for Hieroglyphics and misterious Representations, to make a Monster of a Virgin and Lion, which they call’d Sphinx, and consecrated to the River Nile; the representing of which lying on its Belly, was to explain the Over-flowing of that River.

But to return again to the Pyramids, near which this Sphinx stands, |Observations on the Pyramids.| we shall add these few Observations of Father Vansleb concerning them, viz. That they are not built with Marble, but with a white sandy Stone exceeding hard; that none of them are perfectly square, but have all two sides longer than the others, which is plainly visible in the greater and the lesser Pyramid: The North side is longer than that which stretches from East to West, yet are they nevertheless built in very good Order, and each of the three largest stand at the head of 10 lesser, which are not well to be distinguish’d, by reason of heaps of Sand that lye before them. They have all an Entrance that leads to a low Alley, which is exceeding long, and has at the end a Chamber, where the antient Egyptians plac’d the Bodies of those Persons for whom the Pyramid was design’d, tho’ this Entrance is not to be seen in every one of them, because the Wind has stopp’d it up with Sand. On the top of the largest Pyramid was antiently a Statue or Colossus: This appears in that it is not so sharp as the others, but rather plain, and there are yet to be seen great Holes, which were to keep the Colossus from falling; but at present there is nothing to be seen at top but many Letters of the Names of Persons of all Nations, who had left them to witness they had been there. Lastly, He makes no question but that this Place where the Pyramids are built, was the Burying-Place of the old City of Memphis, by reason all the Arabian Histories inform us that this City stood where the Pyramids now are, over against old Cairo. He also imagines the Sphinx to be a Tomb, First, From its scituation in a Place which was in former Ages a Burying-Place, and near the Pyramids and mortuary Caves. Secondly, That it appears to be a Sepulchre from its Building; for in the hinder part is a Cave under Ground, of a bigness answerable to that of the head, into which he look’d by an Entrance that led into it, so that it could serve to no other purpose than to keep a dead Corps.

Caves near the Pyramids.

From the Pyramids, Vansleb went to take a View of the Caves that are adjoyning, which formerly serv’d for Places to bury the Dead in: Of these there are several hollow’d or cut in the side of a Rock, in bad Order and without Symmetry on the out-side, but very even and well proportion’d within: All of them have a square Well cut likewise out of the Rock, in which the Egyptians laid the Bodies of those for whom the Cave had been made, it serving them for a Tomb. The Walls of some of these are full of Hieroglyphic Figures, cut also in the Rock; in some they are but small, in others very lively. In one, says he, I counted 16 great Figures, eight Men and as many Women, holding each other by the Hand, with some other small Figures on each side.

Subterranean Caves.

But to speak more particularly of the Subterranean Caves, near the Borough of Sacara in Egypt, we shall observe, that among the most remarkable Things that were found, as well in the City of Memphis, as some Miles round about it, the Caves or Tombs under Ground were the most considerable, and worthy the search of the Curious. It is on these Subterranean Caves that this City and several Places thereabouts were built, as on so many Vaults, as the Ancients have written, and those Caves do by far surpass the Catacombs of Rome both in Grandeur and Beauty; for the antient Egyptians, who maintain’d the Metempsychosis or Transmigration of Souls from one Body to another, took care not only to preserve their Dead from Putrifaction, but also endeavour’d to lay them up in a secure and quiet Place of Burial: That they might therefore take all manner of precaution against any alteration that might happen to them from the Injuries of Air, Fire, or the length of Time, they did not place their Dead in Places where the River Nile might overflow, nor in the open Fields, but either in Pyramids of a more durable continuance, or in Subterranean Vaults built with great care of Stones, or lastly, in Caves cut out of the Rock it self, for which the Region of Memphis and Places adjoyning were very proper, because they consist of a Rock, which is hid under the thickness of about a Foot and half of Sand. |Their Burying-Places.| Their Burying-Places then were Subterranean Caves divided into several Apartments, roof’d like great Halls, and with so many Windings, which went from one to the other, that they resembl’d real Labyrinths or Meanders. According to the report of the antient Egyptians, there was such a vast number of those Subterranean Apartments which butted one against another, that they extended some Miles in length, even to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and the Oracle of Serapis, which was a great conveniency to the Priests, who might hold a Correspondence with each other without being scorch’d by the heat of the Sun, or incommoded by the Sands; so that all those vast sandy Plains of Egypt were hollow underneath, and divided into numberless Apartments and Places for dead Corps. This seems surprizing and almost incredible, but they that will consider the other prodigious Works of the Egyptians, and make some Reflections on what the antient Historians have wrote of the great and most antient City of Memphis, and the almost infinite number of that People, will not find this so impossible; besides what the Arabian Authors say, that there was formerly a Subterranean Communication between this City of Memphis and that of Heliopolis, being several Miles assunder, and which pass’d also under the Bed of the River Nile. The greatest part of the Inhabitants of the Borough of Sacara, |How those of Sacara get their Livelyhoods.| which is nearest those Caves of the Mummies or Embalm’d Bodies, and three good Hours Journey from the Pyramids, get their Livelyhoods by digging into those Caves, and taking out the Mummies, because their Tillage is not able to maintain them by reason of the sterrility of the Soil, wherefore whoever has occasion for their Service, may easily hire them for Money, to conduct them into Caves that are already open, to see them, or to dig for new ones in the Sand, which have not hitherto been remov’d, for some of these Caves have not yet been discover’d, being hid in such manner under the Sand, that there is no Stranger, nor hardly any Inhabitant of the Country, that can be certain before-hand where any Mummy may be found: Besides, the Europeans have from Time to Time caus’d so many to be open’d, that they are become exceeding scarce.

The Entrance into these Caves.

They enter these Caves by an opening at top even with the Ground, into which they are let down, as into a Well, by means of a Rope and the assistance of a Servant with a Light in their Hands, tho’ in some few they can climb up and down, by setting their Feet in certain gaps in the Wall, as appears by the Plate at p. 203. Letter E. This Well or Descent into these Caves is about 16 or 18 Foot deep, and at bottom, the Passage of it is so low, they are forc’d to stoop and creep thro’, where they arrive in a four-square Chamber or Repository, |The Chamber.| 24 Foot every way, on each side of which, next the Wall, stand Bases or Tables cut out of the Rock, about five Foot long, two and a half broad, and one high, whereon are plac’d the dead Bodies, Embalm’d and adorn’d after the manner before describ’d, and put into Coffins of Wood or Stone, carv’d after their own similitude. Many times, besides the number of Coffins just mention’d, there lye round about upon the Floor several other little ones, which seem to be the Coffins of Children. Sometimes there are abundance of these Caves near each other, as you may imagine by the Plate before-mention’d; but that you may have a more clear Idea of all that is here describ’d, I have added another, the Description of which is as follows: |Description of the Ichnography and Scenography of these Caves.| A. A. A. A. shows the Ichnography of a Burying-Place, wherein are nine Chambers or Apartments all of an equal bigness, mark’d with the Letters, B. B. B. Each of these has four Bases whereon the Coffins are set, as appears by the Figures 1. 2. 3. 4. The Walls or Partitions are represented by the Letters C. C. C. but these are all more exactly seen in the Scenography, in which D. and E. shows two Caves with their Walls turn’d over with Arches. Adjoyning to the Walls lye four Bases in each Cave, whereon the Coffins are set, mark’d by the Letters F. G. H. I. K. L. &c. At the Head of the Coffin, stands a Figure like a Boy in Swadling-Clouts, and at the Feet a Hawk, being their Tutelar Gods, by whose Presence and Assistance they thought the Bodies would be defended from all kinds of Violence, and over these, against the Wall, were cut in an oval form Hieroglyphics, mark’d M. N. O. P.

This may suffice for a general Description of these Caves, |Observations on the Subterranean Caves.| yet it may not be amiss to add a few Observations made by Father Vansleb on this Subject: He tells us he went on purpose to see these Caves, and gives us every particular Instance that happen’d to him; but this we must also take notice of, that Le Bruyn attributes the very same Remarks to one Milton an English Man, and he that pleases to give himself the trouble to read both, will find them much of a piece. They are as follows: After having said that first an Agreement must be made with the Arabians of the Borough of Sacara, about the number and quality of Wells one would have open’d, as also what was to be given them for their Trouble, and that for better security 12 Arabian Horsemen ought to be brought along with one; he adds, That the first Well he went to see was that of Embalm’d Birds, |Wells of Embalm’d Birds.| and that having caus’d the Sand that cover’d the Mouth of the Well to be remov’d, thro’ which he was to go down, and from thence to enter into the Cave, he caus’d himself and his Companions to be let down one after another, by tying a double Rope about their Middles. So soon as they were at the bottom, and that every one had lighted his Flambeau, and several Matches they had brought along with them, they crept on their Bellies into a Cave, which was an Entry cut thro’ the Rock about a Man’s height, a Fathom wide, and extraordinary long. On each side they found other Entries, cut also into the Rock, where were several Chambers full of a great number of Earthen-Pots, with Covers of the same. In these were contain’d Embalm’d Birds of all kinds, every Bird having a Pot to it self. They found there also several Hen-Eggs whole, but which were empty, and consequently had no ill Smell.

Having sufficiently view’d this Cave, they were drawn up again in like manner as they were let down. Then having commanded their Arabians to open a Virgin-Well |A Virgin-Well.| (for so such are call’d as have never been open’d) they were immediately let down into it, in the same manner as before describ’d; but being come to the bottom, they found such a horrid Stench, and so close an Air, that they were not only not able to breath, but it also put out their Flambeaus, as likewise their Matches every time they endeavour’d to light them, so that they were thereupon forc’d to cause themselves to be drawn up again with all speed, without having been able to advance one step. Our Author says, that all he could say of this Well was, That it was much deeper than the former.

A Cave with two Mummies.

After this he caus’d another Cave to be open’d, which was not a Virgin-Well as the former. Being let down into it he found there two Mummies, one greater and the other lesser of a Child, both in Coffins: The biggest was of Marble, cut after the likeness of him for whom it was made. He caus’d them to be open’d but found nothing extraordinary in them, therefore took no Account of them, but left them where he found them.

A Cave call’d the Church.

He went down next into a Cave call’d the Church, which, he says, was the shallowest of all he had seen, it being nothing but a long Entry under Ground, well Plaister’d and Painted every-where with Hierogliphics. He tells us there was so great a quantity of Sand in this Cave, that he and his Company were forc’d to creep along on their Knees; for as soon as any one has seen these Wells, the Arabians are wont to fill them up again with Sand, if the Wind does not do it for them, that they may get more Money by them another Time; for this is the greatest Livelihood these miserable Creatures have, and the least they take for opening a Virgin-Well is 30 [6]Piasters. The reason of this high Price is, that those which cause them to be open’d, have the liberty to carry away all the Curiosities and Mummies they find there.

6. Each Piaster is 5 s. Sterling or thereabouts, so the whole may make near 9 l.

Now to give a perfect Idea of this Plain of Mummies, the antient Burying-Place of the Egyptians, you must represent to your self a vast and boundless Champion Country, cover’d all over with Sand, where there are neither Trees, Plants, Grass, Houses, nor any thing like them to be seen, but the whole Surface is strew’d with dry Bones of Arms, Legs, Feet, Heads, old Linnen Rags, broken Tombs or Coffins, and a great many little Idols, some of Wood, and others of Earth glaz’d with a green colour, and mark’d before and behind with Hieroglyphics: In some places you may see great Tomb-Stones, engrav’d with Cyphers and Ænigmatical Figures, that represent something of Chymistry and other Sciences and Mysteries of the antient Egyptians, as also some strange Characters that are no Hieroglyphics. These are the remains of their Pride and Vanity, as likewise sad Proofs that all Men are subject to Death: This causes Horrour to those that come first into the Plain, and if one considers attentively the number of Bones wherewith it is strew’d, one would be apt to think that Place had formerly been a Field of Battel. So much for the Pyramids and Subterranean Caves, now there only remains to speak of the Sepulchral Lamps, which some assert to have burnt perpetually, and have therefore been the Subject of much Discourse among the Virtuosi of all Ages.

Authors who have written of Sepulchral Lamps.

Clemens Alexandrinus, Appian, Burattinus, Hermolaus Barbarus, Costæus, Citesius, Cælius, Casalius, Cedrenus, Delrius, Ericius, Foxius, Gesnerus, Jacobonus, Leander, Libavius, Lazius, Langius, Licetus, Maiolus, Maturantius, Baptista Porta, Pancirollus, Ruscellius, Scardeonius, Tassonius, Ludovicus Vives, Volateranus and many other learned and ingenious Authors, who have written of these Sepulchral Lamps, do most of them believe and strenuously assert, that they burn’d for several Hundreds of Years, and would have so continu’d, perhaps for ever, had they not been broken by the unadvis’d Irruptions of Rustics and Husbandmen, by diging up the Ground, or otherwise extinguish’d by the like Accidents. ’Tis true, there are not many that affirm that they themselves saw any of these Lamps burning, but then they give you abundance of Instances of such as did, and where they were found, which being too many to be inserted here, we shall only mention a few, after having inquir’d to what End and Purpose they were invented and made use of; of what Matter and Fashion they were compos’d, and whether it were possible for any of them, when once lighted, to burn perpetually without any addition or supply of fresh Aliment.

Perpetual Lamps to what end invented.

First then we are to understand, that as the Egyptians (thro’ a firm belief they had of the Metempsychosis) affected to procure a Perennity to the Body by Balsamation or Embalming, and the security thereof by Pyramids, Subterranean Vaults, &c. so they endeavour’d to animate the Defunct by perpetual Fire, which answer’d the Nature of their Souls: |Fire an Emblem of the Soul.| For with them Fire was the Symbol of an Incorruptible, Immortal and Divine Nature, and hence some will have it, they erected Pyramids ([7]the Symbols of Fire) of that Solidity as easily to overcome the Injuries of Time, and by their Figure to demonstrate the Immortality of the Soul. And whereas flaming Fire was more corruscating and enlightning than any other Matter, they invented Lamps to hang in the Sepulchres of the Rich, which would burn perpetually without any assistance or addition. This as it was a Symbol of the Immortality of the Soul, so did it likewise serve for a Symbol of their grateful Intentions towards the Manes and Guardian Gods, who protected the Bodies in their Sepulchres, thereby both venerating, honouring and respecting the Souls of the Deceas’d, and also rendring what was very grateful and acceptable to them. |And of Eternal Life.| Now whereas the Egyptians signify’d Life by a Lamp, and also believ’d that their Immortal Souls tarry’d in the Grave with their Bodies, so after having Embalm’d those Bodies to prevent the Souls forsaking them, by reason of their Corruption and Dissolution, they deposited them in Subterranean Caves, where they had provided Lamps that would burn perpetually, to the end that their Souls might not lye miserably imprison’d in darkness, and thereby any hurt befal them; but on the contrary, enjoy eternal light and be free from all evil, or that when the Soul should wander, it might not mistake its Residence, but be by the light of the Lamp guided and conducted to return to its former Habitation.

7. Pyramis, ἀπὸ τοῦ πυρὸς, quod ad ignis speciem extenuatur in Conum.

These are the absur’d Opinions of the Superstitious Egyptians, and the Reasons why they plac’d burning Lamps with the Dead in their Subterranean Vaults, as Jacobonus, Foxius, Scaliger and others relate; therefore the next Thing which we shall consider, is, whether there ever was or can be such a Thing made as a perpetual burning Lamp. Most of the before-mention’d Authors believe there were such Lamps: Licetus particularly has writ a whole Folio to prove it, and Kircher produces a Story out of Schiangia, an Arabian Author, which he thinks will solve it; but however, whether there have been any perpetual burning Lamps or not, since no Author of good Credit ever saw one, it is nevertheless very certain that Lamps are frequently found in the Sepulchres and Subterranean Caves of the Dead, which, to what end and purpose they were there plac’d, will still remain a great Quere, unless it were for the above-alledg’d Reasons, since Licetus and other Authors say, These were the proper Places for them, asserting they might be extinguish’d by the admission of Air in the breaking up of such Places. Greaves at the end of his Description of the first Pyramid, p. 99. takes notice of two Inlets or Spaces in the South and North side of the Chamber, just opposite to one another, very evenly cut and running in a straight Line about six Foot into the thickness of the Wall, |Lamps suppos’d to have been in the first Pyramid.| which, he says, by the blackness within, seem to have been a Receptacle for the burning of Lamps. T. Livius Burattinus would gladly have believ’d it had been an Hearth for one of these perpetual Lamps which we now are speaking of; but Greaves imagines the Invention not to be so antient as this Pyramid: However, Burattinus in his Italian, and Michael Schatta in his Arabic Letter to Kircher, which you may read in Oedipi Ægyptiaci Theatrum Hierogliphicum, p. 544. affirm that they found many Lamps in the Subterranean Caves of old Memphis, |Lamps in the Subterranean Caves of Memphis.| some having three, four, eight or 12 Lights, and made in the shape of Dog, Man, Bull, Hawk, Serpent and the like. Also Casalius tells us he had some Lamps of Brass which represented a Dog, Ox, Sphinx, &c. and some made of Earth. Seeing therefore they are so different in their matter, shape and number of Lights, I have given you the Sculptures of 15 of them, with their Description more at large.

A Description of some Lamps

The first Figure represents Serapis sitting in a Chair, having a Basket made of Rushes on his Head; he rests his right Hand on a Staff or Scepter, and lays his left on a tripple-headed Monster, such a one as is joyn’d to the Statue of Serapis at Alexandria: |and first of Serapis.| This Lamp was found between the Walls, near one of the Gates of Rome call’d Capena, and is in the Custody of Pietro Santo Bartoli, as Bellori informs us, from whom we have taken the three first and the sixth Figures. |Lamp of a tripple-headed Monster.| The second Figure shews the tripple-headed monstrous Representation of Serapis at Alexandria: It is an Image of Brass with the Heads of three several kinds of Animals, viz. In the middle the Head of a Lion, on the right Hand that of a fawning Dog, and on the left that of a rapacious Wolf, which signifie the three Times, the present, past and to come. The Body is environ’d with two Serpents in four Wreaths or Circumvolutions from the Legs to the Neck, perhaps to denote the four Seasons, turn’d about by the Sun; for by the Figure of Serapis the Egyptians denoted the Sun: See a fuller Description of it in Macrobii Saturnalibus. This is kept at present in the Royal Collection of the King of Prussia, together with the whole Musæum of Bellori, which that Prince purchas’d. |Another Lamp of Serapis.| The third Figure is the Head of Serapis, with a Basket and Crown upon it like the Rays of the Sun: These express the Nature of that God, whom the Egyptians believ’d to be the same with the Sun, viz. The Beginning and Ending of all such Things as proceed from and return back to it. The Basket on the top of the Head shows, says Macrobius, the height of this Planet and the virtue of its Influence, in that all earthly Things return to it, whilst they are drawn up by the Heat it immits; for which Reason this God is thought to be the same with Pluto, and was not rarely added to the Sepulchral Lamps, as these two testifie; the latter of which, being of excellent Workmanship, is in the Custody of Raphael Fabrettus. Before we proceed to give any farther Description of these Lamps, it may be necessary to remark, that some were also kept in the Egyptian Temples and other Places, as well as in the Caves of the Dead; but then, says Kircher, they were made in the similitude of that God who was worshipp’d in that Temple. Thus in the Temple of Anubis, the Lamp was in the likeness of a Dog’s Head, or else in the shape of his whole Body; in the Temple of Osiris it was in the form of a Hawk’s Head, or of the whole Bird; in the Temple of Isis, of a Half Moon, and so of the rest. The Lamps were wrought in the same fashion with those Numina represented in each particular Temple or Place, as all those testifie which have been brought from Egypt, and are at this Day kept in the Cabinets of the Curious. Moreover you must observe that the Egyptians set up Lamps not only to those Gods that were beneficial to them, but likewise to such as were mischievous, to the end they might more readily have recourse to the one and avoid the other. Of this last kind Johannes Nardius sent one out of his Musæum to Kircher, in the form and shape as is express’d by Figure the fourth, viz. |A Lamp of Typhon.| Under the Symbol of an Ass, Typhon was represented, because, as Plutarch observes, his Voice was like the braying of that Animal, and which he likewise resembl’d in colour, ignorance and stupidity. This Typhon was thought to bring Sterility, Droughts, Contagion, and the like kind of Evils upon the Egyptians, therefore to prevent his obstructing the fruitful overflowing of the Nile, they form’d his Lamps in the manner you see, that knowing himself by his Image, he might cease from perpetrating of Evil: Silenus likewise, who is the Symbol of the Nile’s Fertility, and constant Attendant on Bacchus or Osiris, rides astride on his Head, and thereby restrains his power of doing Mischief: This Lamp moreover stands on the Foot of an Eagle or Hawk, thereby, says Kircher, to represent how Typhon’s destructive and flagrating Power lying hid in the Sun, was made more temperate by a Humour which Silenus, the Page of the aforesaid Bacchus, had the Command of; for, as Plutarch well observes, Isis would never have Typhon quite destroy’d, but only conquer’d, because tho’ his adust and fiery Nature, by reason of its too great Siccity, was pernicious, nevertheless being temper’d with much moisture, it was sometimes useful. The fifth Figure represents a Lamp, whose bigger Foramen on the middle of its Superficies, where they pour’d in the Oil, is cover’d with a large Heliotrope inverted, |A Lamp of a Heliotrope.| a Flower so call’d by the Greeks from its ever inclining towards the Course of the Sun; for in the Morning it turns to the East, at Noon is erect, towards the Evening faces the West, and at Night inclines to the Earth, enquiring, as it were, for the Sun bury’d under Ground, and waiting for its Resurrection the next Morning. This may serve to teach us what Affinity, Temper and Agreement Things of an inferior Nature have with those that are Celestial; and if Aristotle confesses that the Winds, Waters and other inanimate Things follow the heavenly Circuit, why should we question the Heliotrope’s subsequency to the Course of the Sun, or the Seliotrope’s to that of the Moon? Surely he who form’d this Flower turn’d downwards on a Sepulchral Lamp, seems thereby to intimate the Night of Death which Bodies suffer under Ground, and withal to show, according to the Opinion of the Ancients, that the Souls of the Deceas’d tarry together with their Bodies in the Grave. This Lamp, as likewise those at Figure the 7th, 10th, 12th, 13th and 15th were first publish’d by Casalius, and explain’d by Licetus. The next Lamp, mark’d with Figure six, |Lamp of the Alexandrian Pharos.| seems to represent the Pharos of Alexandria, into whose Haven a Ship is just entring, the Seamen being furling up their Sails, and for want of a better Reason, is suppos’d to have been plac’d in the Sepulchre of a certain Merchant of that City; but is now in the Musæum of Pietro Santo Bartoli, as Bellori informs us. As concerning the following Lamp, with a big Belly and Handle, and standing upon three Feet, as you may see at Figure the seventh, Licetus believes Casalius is under a mistake in reckoning it for a Lamp, and that it was rather a certain Vessel in form of a Cucumber, in which the Ancients were wont to heat Water; but I cannot be of his Opinion, since by its shape it looks very much unlike a Cucumber, and from the smallness of its Mouth at top, and the appearance of a Place for the Wiek, it seems most probably to have been a Lamp. |The Lamp of an Ox with a Boy on his Back.| The eighth Lamp, made in the shape of an Ox couching on the Ground, with a Boy sitting on his Back, and holding a Fig-Leaf in his Hand, was sent by the Great Duke of Tuscany out of his Musæum, to Kircher: The Ox being the Figure of Apis, and Apis signifying the chief Numen or Patron of Agriculture, wherefore this Lamp was plac’d in the Temple of Apis in Honour of that God, denoting by the Vessel, the pious and religious Affection the antient Egyptians had for that Deity; and by the Fire the vital Heat, thinking that if he were absent from their Husbandry, all would run to the last Destruction. Under that Symbol therefore they tacitely sollicited this Numen to grant warmth and vital Heat to the Fields and Meadows, hoping, by the religious Ceremony of Fire, that he would be more vigilant and take greater care of Things committed to his Trust. By the Boy and Fig-Leaf they denoted the vital Heat and vegetable Life communicated to this Deity, whereby all Things are fructify’d, and seem as it were to grow young again. The ninth Figure or Lamp represents a very fair and entire Sphinx with a Womans Face, |Lamp of a Sphinx.| having her Head bound about with a Fillet or Hair-Lace, the hinder part cover’d with a Coif, and two Horns rising out of her Forehead; the Body and Legs were like a Lion’s, and on the top of the Back was a great Foramen, thro’ which they pour’d the Oil: The Breast was very protuberant and somewhat like a Scollop-Shell, at the top of which is seen a lesser Foramen for the Wick. This Kircher positively believes to have been a Sepulchral Lamp, forasmuch as the antient Egyptians were wont to place Sphinx’s about their Sepulchres, and Pliny moreover witnesses, that an entire Pyramid was built in Egypt of that shape, whom you may consult more at large, Lib. 36. cap. 12. The tenth Lamp has two Wieks, |Lamp of the Moon.| and may either be hung up or set upon its Foot: From the form of a Crescent at the other extremity or handle, it is thought to have been dedicated to the Moon, or else to have burn’d in the Sepulchre of some Person of Rank, as a Symbol of his Nobility, of which this was an Hieroglyphic, and therefore they antiently wore one in their Shoes, &c. to distinguish them from inferior Persons, and perhaps might also Sup by a Lamp made in that form in token of their Quality and Grandure. As this had two, so the following Lamp at Figure eleven had four Wieks or Lights, |Lamp with four Lights.| being, as Nardius tells us, brought out of Egypt, with some Mummies, to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, by which, says Kircher, nothing seems more to be meant than the Worship of those Deities which went before the four Seasons of the Year; for seeing the Prosperity of the whole Republic depended on the Plenty of those Things, to which the abovesaid Deities were distributed, in the Circle of the four Seasons of the Year, they aptly apply’d the Lamp with four Lights to complete these mysterious Ceremonies; for the Egyptians erected their Lamps with so many Lights as the number of that Deity, consecrated to any one, contain’d of Unities. |Lamp with an Ox’s Head.| The Lamp at Figure the twelfth, with the Head of an Ox, which as Valerianus, Lib. 3. Hierogl. plainly demonstrates to be the Symbol of the Earth, was Sepulchral and depicted Hieroglyphically, to show that the Body of Man was resolv’d into Earth from whence it was first form’d. |Lamp of a wing’d Sphinx.| Figure the thirteenth is a Lamp on whose Superficies a wing’d Sphinx grav’d or wrought, which as it was among the Egyptians the Symbol of secret Wisdom, so it denotes that this Lamp was plac’d in the Sepulchre of some Learned Man, whose Sayings were wont to be Ænigmatical, and were represented by the Image of a Sphinx; or perhaps more particularly to denote the Depositum of some Noble Poet; for it is the property of a Poet, under the cover of a Fable, to contain the mysterious Secrets of Divine Matters, and to enlighten the hidden Senses of honest Actions, that they may be imitated. |Lamp with two beaked Ships.| The next Lamp at Figure the fourtenth was purchas’d of the Arabians, by that excellent Physician John Baptista Bonagente Vicentinus, who saw them take it out of one of the Caves of the Mummies near the Pyramids, and after his Death Fr. Sanctus a Plebe Sacci bought it out of his Collection at Cairo, and brought it to Padua, where he presented it to the most illustrious Sertorio Ursatto, who afterwards show’d it to Licetus, and he gave the following Figure and Description of it, viz. That it had twelve Lights or Wieks, and on it was represented two beaked Ships with many Oars, as it were mutually going into a hostile Engagement, which denotes, says Licetus, that this Lamp was plac’d in the Sepulchre either of a certain famous Pirate, Commander of 12 Gallies, with three Oars on a side, and who infested the Egyptian Seas, or, on the contrary, of some Captain who defended their Coasts from their Enemies; to which he adds, that this Lamp being but small, and having 12 large Wieks, it must undeniably have consumed away in a very short Time, unless it were fill’d with incombustible Oil. |Lamp with a Dog’s Head.| By the fifteenth and last Figure of a Lamp, on the extremity of whose handle is a Dog’s Head, Pierius and Ambrosius think is signify’d, that Men are faithfully to keep their Words and Trust in all Things committed to their Charge; and that a Dog’s Head had a chief Place in Sepulchral Lamps, inasmuch as it was the Hieroglyphic of a Sexton or Libitinarius; for as a Dog by firm and stedfast looking on, watches and defends the Images both of Gods and Men, so the Libitinarii were to keep and look to the Embalm’d Bodies, and all Things appertaining thereunto or Funeral Ceremonies.

Thus Licetus, Bellori and Kircher have given you their Opinions of the Hieroglyphical Signatures and Significations of some Egyptian Lamps, which we have just now mention’d, to which we will add two more very well worth the taking notice of, the one a particular Ceremony of burning sweet-smelling Lamps and Incense to the deceas’d Daughter of King Mycerinus, and the other a general lighting of Lamps throughout all Egypt, call’d The Feast of Lamps.

Lamp of Mycerinus.

The first was instituted by Mycerinus, one of the Kings of Egypt, who, being depriv’d of Heirs, by the Death of his Daughter and only Child, endeavour’d to immortalize her Memory by the most sumptuous Structure he could devise: For this end instead of a Subterranean Cave or Sepulchre, he erected a very fine Palace, with a Hall in the midst of it, beautifully adorn’d with abundance of Statues and Figures. In this Hall he deposited her Corps in a Coffin made after the similitude of an Ox in a kneeling posture, and cover’d over with Plates of Gold and a Purple-Mantle: The Ox had between its Horns a Sun of massy Gold, and before it there burn’d a Lamp, whose Flames were fed with most odoriferous Oils. Round about the Hall stood Perfuming-Pans and Censers, which continually threw up Clouds of sweet-smelling Odours; but this being more fully describ’d before, p. 200. we will refer you thither for a more particular Account, where it is also lively represented by a Plate or Figure.

Feast of Lamps.

The second, viz. The Feast of Lamps, is describ’d by several Authors, tho’ they differ in their Opinions concerning its Origin; some will have it that the Egyptians celebrated this Feast on certain Days of the Year, that Osiris, or the Sun, might not be wanting to preserve them by his Plenty and Benevolence, therefore they made a Sacrifice of Lamps, or a general Illumination to him throughout all Egypt, by reason they thought Fire the best Symbol or representation of the Sun, whom they worshipp’d and call’d Osiris, but whom the Greeks term’d Pluto or Vulcan, which last some think the first Inventor or God of Fire. Moreover, Macrobius says, Osiris was nothing else but the Sun, and Isis the Earth and Nature, made fruitful by him, and Mother of all Productions, which are form’d in her Bosom. Others say Osiris and Isis were King and Queen of Egypt, who reign’d with extraordinary mildness, conferring many great Benefits on their Subjects; also that they hindred Men from eating one another as they were formerly wont to do, and taught them Agriculture and the Use of Corn and Wine; moreover that they made excellent Laws, wherefore Plutarch says, from their being such good Genii, they became Gods, as a just Reward to their Virtue, and that Osiris was Pluto and Isis Proserpina. Herodotus in his Euterpe speaks thus of the Feast of Lamps, having told us in another place, as Casalius observes, that the Egyptians were more religious than all others in the care of their Lamps. ‘But when they had assembl’d together at Sais, the City of Sacrifice, they took their Lamps, prepar’d with good Wieks, fill’d with Oil, and season’d with Salt, and in the Evening lighted them in the open Air before their Houses, burning them all the Night, whence this lighting of Lamps came to be call’d a Feast of Lamps. Now tho’ all the Egyptians might not come to this Convention, yet did they all observe the Night of Sacrifice, and all lighted their Lamps, so that they were not only lighted in Sais, but also throughout all Egypt; but for what cause this Night obtain’d so much Glory and Honour, a certain holy Reason is given;’ yet which Herodotus does not declare.

To what end the Feast of Lamps was instituted.

Some think the Egyptians were wont to light up these Lamps in the Night, to find Osiris out with Isis, he being kill’d, as they say, by his Brother Typhon. Moreover, Lactantius tells us, the Priests beat their Breasts, and lamented with great Howlings, just as Isis did when she had lost Osiris, but rejoyc’d again when they had found him, so that from this often loosing and finding him, Lucan thus expresses himself on that Subject:

Nunquamq; satis quæsitus Osiris.

Also by observing this Worship or Celebration of the Feast of Lamps, they promis’d themselves great Plenty of all Things; for as Pausanias relates, the Nile’s beginning to encrease in those Days that they celebrated this Feast to Isis, in bewailing Osiris, induc’d them to believe, that the increase of that River, and Inundation of the Fields, was occasion’d only by the Tears which Isis shed for the Death of Osiris, and some will have Osiris to be the Nile, and Isis Egypt.

The true and sacred Reason.

But the true and Sacred Reason why the Egyptians celebrated this Feast of Lamps with Tears and Lamentations, Casalius thinks to have been in Memory of that doleful Night, in which GOD slew all the First-Born of Egypt, as well Men as Beasts (among whom was Osiris) to the end that he might bring the Children of Israel out of that Country; for then King Pharaoh and all the Egyptians rose out of their Beds in the midst of the Night, and lighting their Lamps, lamented their slain Sons, thereby suffering the Sons of Israel to go free out of the Land, as appears by Exodus the 12th Chapter and the 12th, 29th, 30th, 31st, 32d and 33d Verses, where it is thus written: I the Lord will pass thro’ the Land of Egypt this Night, and will smite all the First-Born, both Man and Beast; and against all the Gods of Egypt will I execute Judgment. And it came to pass that at Midnight the Lord smote all the First-Born of Pharaoh, that sat on his Throne, unto the First-Born of the Captive that was in the Dungeon, and all the First-Born of Cattle. And Pharaoh rose up in the Night, he and all his Servants, and all the Egyptians, and there was a great Cry in all Egypt; for there was not a House where there was not one dead. And he call’d for Moses and Aaron by Night, and said, Rise up, and get you forth from amongst my People, both you and the Children of Israel, and go, serve the Lord, as ye have said. Also take your Flocks and your Herds, as ye have said; and be gone, and bless me also. And the Egyptians were urgent upon the People, that they might send them out of the Land in haste; for they said, we be all dead Men. So that this true History of the Nightly Bewailings of the Egyptians, every one over his First-Born that was dead, and of their Joy by reason of their being freed from the fear of the Death of their other Children, at GOD’s People going out of their Land, was the true occasion why the Egyptians did afterwards celebrate it with the Feast of Lamps, describ’d by Herodotus, and which the Egyptian Priests, who conceal’d all their Mysteries under Hieroglyphics like to Fables, did to shew the wonderful and miserable Bewailings of Isis for slain Osiris, who some think was the First-Born of Pharaoh. On the contrary, so soon as this Night was over, the Egyptians worshipp’d the Rising Sun, with rejoycings and leaping about, and a great number of both Sexes, says Apuleius, appeas’d the Celestial Bodies with Lamps, Torches and other kind of Lights; but the Chief Priest carry’d a very famous burning Lamp, not like those commonly us’d at Evening-Banquets, but like to a Golden Boat, out of the middle of which issu’d forth a very large and bright Flame. But neither of these Lamps describ’d by Herodotus, to wit, that of Mycerinus, or those us’d at the Feast of Lamps, are said to have burn’d perpetually, without ever going out, or any addition of new Matter being made to them: Nevertheless, some affirm, there have been such Lamps as endur’d for many Ages, and probably might have been perpetual, had they not been accidentally broken or extinguish’d: |Lamp of Tulliola.| Of these, the most remarkable is that which Erasmus Franciscus produces out of Pflaumerus, Pancirollus and others, viz. That under the Reign of Pope Paul III. in the Appian Way to Rome, where many of the chief Heathens were formerly bury’d, a Tomb was open’d in which there was found the entire Body of a very fair Lady, swimming in a wonderful Liquor which preserv’d it from Putrifaction in such manner, that the Face was no ways sunk, but seem’d exceeding beautiful and like to the Life it self: Her Hair was yellow, wreath’d about with an artificial Ligature, and connected with a Circle or Gold-Ring. Under her Feet burn’d a Lamp, whose Flame vanish’d upon opening the Sepulchre; from some grav’d Marks it appear’d the Body had been there bury’d above 1500 Years, but whose it was is not yet known, tho’ many have suppos’d it to have been the Body of Tulliola, Daughter of Cicero, from this short Inscription said to have been found grav’d on the Tomb, viz.

TULLIOLÆ FILIÆ MEÆ.

Some say this Body, so soon as it was touch’d, immediately turn’d to Ashes and disappear’d; but the truth of this Story is very much to be question’d, |Refuted.| and if we enquire strictly into each particular Circumstance, it will appear altogether fabulous: For, First, if it had been kept with any Balsamic Liquor, it could not so soon have turn’d to Ashes, and if it had not been Embalm’d, then for it to have been kept uncorrupt so many Hundreds of Years, would have been as great a Miracle as the burning of the Lamp. Secondly, The Argument from the Inscription, that it was the Body of Tulliola, is as doubtful as the matter of Fact can be true, for any one never so indifferently vers’d in the Monuments of the Antients, will believe it ought then to have been written in this manner, and according to their usual Custom: M. Tullius Cicero, Terentiæ Uxori, Tulliolæ Filiæ, &c. if either the Father had been bury’d there, or had built it for his Wife and Children: Also the word Meæ is needless, forasmuch as she was the Daughter, not of another but of the Person that built the Tomb for himself and Family; but who it was that either built the Tomb, or was Father to the Daughter, the words of the Inscription do not show, whereby they appear in all respects to be, not the Truth and Elegancy of those Times, but meer Novelties and Follies: Besides, it could not be any of Cicero’s Family (and therefore the Assertion and Title must be false) because in his Time and long before, the Romans were wont to burn all Bodies, and thereby reduce them to Ashes, except those of Infants that had not had their Teeth cut, and a few particular Families; but of this number we do not read that Cicero was one who was exempted from the Flames of the Funeral Pyre. Some therefore who deservedly suspect the Title, will have it to be the Body of Priscilla, Daughter of Abascantus; but whoever it was, Judæus Apella thinks it not to have been reduc’d to Ashes by burning, but by the immission of the Air or contact of the Body, and that it had without Embalming, remain’d incorrupt 1500 Years, whereas both Iron and Marble are consum’d in much lesser Time. But Cælius Rhodiginus, Antiq. Lect. Lib. 3. cap. 24. relates it quite otherwise, viz. That it suffer’d not the Injuries of Time, by reason of its being condited with Aromatics, until three Days after it was brought into the City, when the Medicament being remov’d or vitiated it putrify’d. Lastly, This Author as well as Aresius, Alexander ab Alexandro, and Raphael Volateranus, who liv’d the same Time at Rome that this Tomb is reported to have been found, do not so much as mention one word of a Lamp found burning, whereas that being a Thing so very wonderful and miraculous, it could not easily be conceal’d, seeing that even common and frivolous Things are so easily listn’d to by such as are desirous of and expect Novelties: Nay Alexander plainly enough lays down, that there was no Inscription; and Licetus himself does not affirm, that there was any Lamp found burning in that Sepulchre, so that as Ferrarius observes, it appears to be a meer Invention of Pancirollus, who out of an innate desire of relating wonderful Things, and pleas’d with the sweetness of Fables, first receiv’d it for a Truth, and afterwards communicated it to Posterity.

Yet was this not so strange and wonderful a Lamp as that of Pallas, |Lamp of Pallas,| which Martinus the Chronologer relates, and to which Boccatius, Philippus Bergomas and Volateranus assent, viz. That in the Year 1501, when Henry III. was Emperor, a Countryman digging deep in the Earth, near the City of Rome, discover’d a Tomb of Stone, wherein lay a Body so tall, that being erected, it over-top’d the Walls of that City, and was as entire as if it had been but newly bury’d, having a very large Wound on the Breast, and a burning Lamp at its Head, which could neither be extinguish’d by Wind nor Water, so that they were forc’d to perforate the bottom of the Lamp, and by that means put out the Flame. This was said to be the Body of Pallas slain by Turnus, these Verses being inscrib’d on the Sepulchre:

Filius Evandri Pallas, quem Lancea Turni

Militis occidit, more suo jacet hic.

Others read it:——Mole sua jacet hic.

This Lamp is said to have burn’d 2511 Years, and perhaps would have continu’d so to the end of the World, had it not been broke and the Liquor spilt. |Ridicul’d.| Now as this Story appears very fabulous, so Ferrarius de Lucernis Sepulchralibus, p. 17. as wittily ridicules it, thinking it a fitter Tale for an old Grannam in a Chimney-Corner to quiet a peevish and froward Child with, than for a Man of Sense to give credit to; nay, he declares, that for his part, he is almost asham’d to reherse it: Can any one think, says he, that Pallas was so tall a Giant as to surmount the Walls of Rome, or that any one should be so foolish to measure the Body by the Wall, and not by a Foot-Rule, Cubit or Yard? That the Orifice of the Wound should be four Foot wide, and proportionably big to his Body, so that a little Man might jump in and out at it? Surely in this Case Turnus’s Lance must have been as big as that of Polyphemus or the Philistian Goliah’s. Besides, if Pallas were but a Lad when he was slain, as the Poet make him, and yet taller than the Turrets of the Roman Walls, what would he have come to if he had liv’d? Would he not, think you, have encreas’d in height ’till he had equall’d the Obelisk of the Sun? Besides, it must have been more than an Egyptian Embalming that could have preserv’d a Body of that bulk entire for about 26 Ages: Yet, grant all this, the Poet says expresly, the Body of Pallas was burn’d and not bury’d. No less absurd and barbarous are the Verses of the Inscription, which, instead of being elegant and sublime, are mean and poor, undoubtedly compos’d in some Cottage or Ale-House; for what can be meant by more suo, unless he lay in a different posture from what other Bodies are wont to do, or by mole sua, but his being of an unsizeable bulk? However both are as ridiculous and foolish as the Latin is trivial. Nevertheless Licetus endeavours to defend both, alledging by more suo is meant, that there is no other situation of Bodies more proper than lying, either when they are asleep, which is the Emblem of Death, or when they are sick, which is the way to it, but what need he then mention that which every Body knows? The other words mole sua, he says, were to describe the bulk of his Gigantic Body, or else by reason the Ancients thought the Soul tarry’d with the Body in the Sepulchre, or wander’d about it, yet could not either stand, sit or lye, as being an incorporeal Substance, it was said of his Body, as separated from the Soul, and laid up in a Sepulchre, Mole sua jacet hic; so that ’tis the Opinion of this great Philosopher and Critic, that mole sua was added to the Verse, lest any one should suspect the Body and Soul of Pallas did lye together in the same Cave. As to the Lamp, which exceeds all Faith and Belief, for it is affirm’d to have burn’d 2611 Years, and that whereas other Lamps were but small, and soon extinguish’d by the immission of Air, or the blast of Winds, this great and contumacious Flame, well befitting a Giant, defy’d both the light of the Day or darting of the Sun-Beams, and the rushing in of Air or blasts of Wind, and, as they tell you, would have continu’d so for ever, if it had not been broken, whereas they might have better said, if the Liquor had not been spilt, seeing it might have been easier extinguish’d, by inverting the Lamp, and pouring out that precious Oil, which yielded Aliment to the Eternal Fire; nay every one knows, who has seen these Lamps, that they were wont to have several holes at top, wherein they pour’d the Oil: These are foolish and absurd Stories both committed to Print and Posterity, as if they were only to come into the Hands of Boys, or Cucumber-headed Men, as Ferrarius expresses himself. There are several other Relations of this kind, as the Golden Lamp in the Temple of Minerva at Athens, |Lamp of Minerva,| which, says Pausanias, burn’d a whole Year, and was the workmanship of Callimachus. |Of Jupiter Ammon,| The Lamp of Jupiter Ammon, which Plutarch, Lib. de Def. Oracul. speaks of, and which is affirm’d by the Priests to have burn’d continually, yet consum’d less Oil every Year than the former, and tho’ it burn’d in the open Air, neither Wind nor Water could extinguish it. A Lamp in the Fane of Venus, |Of Venus,| which St. Austin speaks of, being of the same Nature with the fore-going, unextinguishable either by Wind or Water. |A Lamp found at Edessa.| A Lamp at Edessa, that Cedrenus mentions, which being hid at the top of a certain Gate, burn’d 500 Years. Another very wonderfull Lamp was that of Olybius Maximus of Padua, |Lamp of Olybius.| found near Atteste, which Scardeonius, Lib. 1. Class. 3. cap. ult. thus describes: In a large Earthen-Urn was contain’d a lesser, and in that a burning Lamp, which had continu’d so 1500 Years, by means of a most pure Liquor contain’d in two Bottles, one of Gold and the other of Silver. These are in the Custody of Franciscus Maturantius, and are by him valu’d at an exceeding Rate.

Abundance of other Lamps of the like Nature are describ’d by Licetus, and confuted by Ferrarius, whither we refer you; for seeing they are but improbable Stories, and the Fictions of Poets, we think it not worth while to spend our Time in repeating them; but in the next place will proceed to enquire after what manner Authors do suppose perpetual burning Lamps to have been made.

Lamps that have burn’d by a Divine Power,

These, says Licetus, Kircher and others, were order’d divers ways, First, Miraculously and Preternaturally, as was that at Antioch, which burn’d 1500 Years in an open and public Place, over the Door of a Church, preserv’d by that Divine Power who hath made so infinite a number of Stars to burn with perpetual Light. Secondly, |By the wiles of the Devil,| By the wiles of the Devil, who, as St. Austin tells us, deceives such a thousand ways, who, out of Curiosity and Avarice, consult Oracles or worship false Gods, so that when Men sought for the Sepulchres of these Gods, nothing was more easie than for the Devil to represent a flash of Light or Flame to them at their first entring into such Subterranean Caves. Others assign Natural Reasons for this, as that which Countrymen imagine to be a burning Lamp, at their first finding those Sepulchres, may be only a kind of Ignis fatuus, or pellucid Matter which shines in the dark; |Or from a Natural Cause.| for such glimmering Coruscations are frequently seen in Church-Yards and fat marshy Grounds, especially at the breaking up of old Tombs, where no Air has been immitted for many Ages. Also Miners observe, that at the first opening of a new Vein of Ore, such flames or flashes of Light break forth; yet are these not sufficient Arguments for criticizing Philosophers, for some believe a Lamp may be made with such Art as to burn perpetually, and others as absolutely deny it, alledging that whatever is resolv’d into Vapour or Smoak cannot be permanent, but will consume, and the oily Nutriment of a lighted Lamp is exhal’d into a Vapour, therefore the Fire cannot be perpetual for want of a Pabulum. On the contrary, those that defend the possibility of making a perpetual Lamp, deny that all the Nourishment of kindl’d Fire must of necessity evaporate into a Damp or Vapour, asserting, that there are things in Nature, which not only resist the force of Fire, and are inconsumable by it, but also inextinguishable either by Wind or Water: Such as these are some peculiar Preparations of Gold, Silver or Mercury; Naptha, Petroleum, and the like bituminous Oils; also Oil of Camphir, Amber and Bricks; the Lapis Asbestos seu Amianthus, Lapis Carystius, Cyprius and Magnesius and Linum vivum seu Creticum, &c. of all which in their Order. First, They affirm such Matter might be prepar’d either of Gold, Silver, or the like Metal, |Or can be made with Gold, Silver,| made fluid after a particular manner, and Gold they thought the fittest Pabulum for such an inconsumable Lamp, because, of all Metals, that wastes the least when either heated or melted, yet what Oily Humidity can that or any other Metal afford which will catch Fire and continue its Flame? But that these perpetual Lamps, if ever there were any such, were not prepar’d of Metals, is sufficiently confuted by Licetus, p. 130 and 132. and by Ferrarius, p. 16. tho’ Licetus in another place, viz. p. 44. makes mention of a Preparation of Quicksilver purged seven Times, thro’ white Sand by Fire, of which, he says, Lamps were made that would burn perpetually; and that this Liquor was variously nam’d by the Chymists, |Or Mercury.| as Aqua Mercurialis, Materia Metallorum, perpetua Dispositio, Materia prima Artis, Vitrum perenne incorruptumque, Oleum Vitri, and the like. Nevertheless, how fabulous soever this may seem, both Maturantius and Citesius aver they firmly believe, that to make a Lamp which will burn perpetually, must of necessity be a Chymical Work, tho’ perhaps not made from any Preparation of Metal. |Two Chymical Experiments for making Eternal Fire.| This appears from the Chymical Experiments of Tritenhemius and Bartholomeus Korndorferus, who both made Preparations for Eternal Fire after the following manner.

First Experiment.

The first was thus made: ℞ Sulphur. Alum. ust. a ℥ iv. sublime them into Flowers to ℥ ij. of which add of Christalline Venetian Borax pouder’d ℥ j. upon these affuse high rectify’d Spirit of Wine and digest it, then abstract it and pour on fresh: Repeat this so often ’till the Sulphur melt like Wax, without any Smoak, upon a hot Plate of Brass, and this is for the Pabulum, but the Wiek is to be prepar’d after this manner: You must gather together the Threds or Thrums of the Lapis Asbestos, to the thickness of your middle, and length of your little Finger, which done, put them into a Venice Glass, and covering them over with the aforesaid depurated Sulphur or Aliment, set the Glass in Sand for the space of 24 Hours, so hot that the Sulphur may bubble all the while. The Wiek being thus besmear’d and anointed, is to be put into a Glass like a Scallop-Shell, in such manner, that some part of it may lye above the Mass of prepar’d Sulphur; then setting this Glass upon hot Sand, you must melt the Sulphur, so that it may lay hold of the Wiek, and when ’tis lighted it will burn with a perpetual Flame, and you may set this Lamp in any Place where you please. The way of making the other Eternal Fire is thus:

Second Experiment.

℞. Salis tosti, lb. j. affuse over it strong Wine-Vinegar, and abstract it to the consistency of Oil; then put on fresh Vinegar and macerate and distill it as before. This repeat four Times successively, then put into this Vinegar Vitr. Antimonii subtiliss. lævigat, lb. j. set it on Ashes in a close Vessel for the space of six Hours, to extract its Tincture, decant the Liquor, and put on fresh, and then extract it again; this repeat so often ’till you have got out all the redness. Coagulate your Extractions to the consistency of Oil, and then rectifie them in Balneo Mariæ: Then take the Antimony, from which the Tincture was extracted, and reduce it to a very fine Meal, and so put it into a glass Bolthead; pour upon it the rectify’d Oil, which abstract and cohobate seven Times, ’till such time as the Pouder has imbib’d all the Oil, and is quite dry. This extract again with Spirit of Wine, so often, ’till all the Essence be got out of it, which put into a Venice Matrass, well luted with Paper five-fold, and then distill it so that the Spirit being drawn off, there may remain at bottom an inconsumable Oil, to be us’d with a Wiek after the same manner with the Sulphur we have describ’d before.

These are those Eternal Lights of Tritenhemius, adds Libavius’s Commentator, which indeed tho’ they do not agree with the Pertinacy of Naptha, yet these things can illustrate one another. |Lamp made with Naptha,| Naptha is not so durable as not to be burn’d, for it exhales and deflagrates, but if it be fix’d by adding the Juice of the Lapis Asbestinos, it can afford Perpetual Fuell, so says that Learned Person upon this Matter. Moreover, Naptha is a sort of Bitumen so very hot, that it presently burns every Thing it adheres to, nor is it easily extinguish’d by any moist Thing; and Pliny says it has such Affinity with Fire, that it presently leaps to it wherever it finds it. Thus ’tis reported Glauca was burnt by Medea, when she came to Sacrifice, for approaching the Altar the Fire immediately caught hold of her: This was because Jason, being in Love with Glauca, the Daughter of Creon King of Corinth, had forsaken Medea, when she to be reveng’d on that Princess, wetted her Vail and Crown with Naptha, by which means she might be the sooner set on Fire, as Plutarch has it in the Life of Alexander the Great. Thus as Naptha is very inflamable and ready to catch Fire, so is it not easily extinguish’d either by Wind or Water, but burns more violently if cast into the Water, or agitated by the Wind. Of this kind also are some other sorts of Bitumen, such as Petroleum, Amber, Camphir, &c. therefore may be proper Ingredients for these sorts of Lamps we are speaking of. Now in Egypt there were many Places full of Bitumen and Petroleum, as Bellonius, Radzivillus, Vallæus, Burattinus, and other Searchers into Egyptian Antiquities testifie, which were constituted by the hidden Counsels of Nature, with an inexhaustible store of Matter; wherefore the Learned among them, who were great Naturalists, having discover’d these bituminous Wells or Fountains, |With liquid Bitumen or Petroleum.| laid from them secret Canals or Pipes to the Subterranean Caves and Sepulchres of the Dead, where, in a convenient Place, they set a Lamp with a Wiek of Asbestos, which was constantly moisten’d and supply’d with Oil by means of this Duct from the afore-said Places: Seeing therefore the flowing of the Oil was perpetual, and the Wiek of Asbestos inconsumable, it must of necessity follow, that the Light also endur’d perpetually. And that this was so, |Confirm’d by Schiangia.| fully appears from what Schiangia an Arabian Author relates in his History of the memorable Things of Egypt, in much the same Words as follow: ‘There was a Field in Egypt whose Ditches were full of Pitch and liquid Bitumen, whence the Philosophers knowing the force of Nature, dug some Canals to their Subterranean Cryptæ, where they set a Lamp, which was joyn’d to the afore-said Canals, and which having a Wiek of incombustible Flax, by that means being once lighted, it burn’d perpetually by reason of the continual afflux of Bitumen, and the incombustible Wiek.’ The same thing might perhaps be effected with Naptha, which flow’d at Mutina in Italy, as also with Petroleum and Sicilian Oil. |And believ’d by Kircher, &c.| This Kircher and several others are of Opinion is the true way of making perpetual Lamps, seeing it is a Thing purely natural, where such Bituminous Oils do abound, and has no other difficulty in it, but preparing the Wiek of Asbestos, or the like, which comes next under our Consideration.

Lapis Asbestos.

First Asbestos, call’d by the Greeks Ἄσβεστος, i. e. inextinguibilis, a kind of Stone, which being set on fire, cannot be quench’d, as Pliny and Solinus write. Albertus Magnus describes it to be a Stone of an Iron colour, found for the most part in Arabia, and of such strange Virtue, as was manifest in the Temples of the Heathen Gods, that being once lighted it was never to be extinguish’d, by reason of some small quantity of oleaginous Moisture, which was inseparately mix’d with it, and which being inflam’d cherish’d the Fire: Now could any expert Chymist rightly extract this indissoluble Oil, we need not question but it would afford a perpetual Pabulum for these Eternal Lamps which the Ancients boast of; but many Experiments of that kind have been made in vain, some affirming, |Its Oil.| the Liquor chymically extracted from that Stone was more of a watry than oily Nature, and withal so fæculent, that it was not capable to receive Fire and exist. Others again have said, that this Oil was of so thick and solid a Substance that it would hardly flow, and for the most part burn’d not at all or but very indifferently, emitting no Flame, or if it did, it shone not with a bright splendor, but cast up thick and dark Fumes, whereas on the contrary, those Lamps of the Ancients, which burn’d so many Ages, yielded a clear and bright Flame without any Smoak to soil the Vessel and circum-ambient Places, and which in time might both obscure, stop up and put out the Light: Hence Kircher is of Opinion, that tho’ the Mistery of extracting this Oil be not impracticable, yet it is very difficult to be attain’d to by any Humane Art, and as Ferrarius also observes, that as the Stone Asbestos, if once lighted is inextinguishable, so much more must its Oil be both incombustible and inextinguishable, wherefore it does not appear that the Lamps of the Ancients were made either of one or the other, seeing for the most part they are said to have gone out immediately on the opening of the Sepulchre where they were plac’d.

Asbeston seu Asbestinum.

Secondly, The very same is said of Asbeston sive Asbestinum, which the Greeks call Ἄσβεστον, i. e. inextinguibile, & est genus Lini quod Ignibus non absumitur, a kind of Flax of which they made Cloth that was to be cleans’d by burning, as Tobacco-Pipes are. Pliny calls it Linum vivum and Indian Flax, and says it was so dear it was esteem’d equal to Pearl and Precious Stones, for it was hard to be met with, and then very difficult to be woven, by reason of the shortness of it. Also he tells us the Bodies of Kings were wont to be wrapp’d in this sort of Cloth, when they were to be burn’d, to the end the Ashes might be preserv’d unmix’d from those of the Funeral Pile, in order to the laying them up in Urns, as the Custom then was when they burn’d their dead Bodies. Moreover Pliny says, he saw some Napkins of this sort of Cloth in his Time, and was an Eye-Witness of the Experiment of purifying them by Fire.

One Podocattarus, a Cyprian Knight, who wrote de Rebus Cypriis in the Year 1566, had both Flax and Linnen of this kind with him at Venice, which Porcacchius says, in his Book of Antient Funerals, he and many others that were with him, saw at that Knight’s House. Also Ludovicus Vives saw a Towel of this kind at Lovain in Brabant, and several Wieks of it at Paris, as he himself relates in his Commentary upon St. Austin’s Treatise de Civitate Dei. Likewise Baptista Porta, says he saw the same thing at Venice in the hands of a Cyprian Woman, and which he terms Secretum optimum, perpulchrum & perutile, a very useful, beautiful and profitable Secret. Several other Authors testifie they have seen the same, but Henricus Salmuthius, in his Commentary upon Pancirollus, p. 16. will have this sort of Linnen to be call’d Asbestinum, from its likeness to Chalk, which he says the Greeks term’d Ἄσβεστον, for as that is wont to be purify’d by Fire, so is this Linnen made clean and white by burning. |Two Objections against this Asbeston.| Now the chief Objections Ferrarius makes against Pliny’s Account of this incombustible and inextinguishable Flax are, first, That if Wieks had been made of it, they would never have been consum’d or extinguish’d, or when once the Funeral Pile was lighted, the incombustible Linnen, wherein the Bodies were wrapp’d, as also the Napkins and Towels, which Authors mention, would never have been quench’d, but have burn’d perpetually, whereas, he says, this kind of Linnen burn’d only so long as either Grease, Fat, or the like Sordes afforded the Flame a Pabulum, wherefore that being consum’d which had occasion’d the Spots or Dirt, the Linnen appear’d more white and clean than if it had been wash’d with Water and Soap. From this it appears also that those Funeral Shrouds of Kings, often mention’d in Authors, burn’d only so long upon the Pile as the Fat or Sanies of the Body afforded Aliment, and when that fail’d, the Flame ceas’d likewise; for otherwise, if this sort of Flaxen Linnen had been inextinguishable, as Salmuthius seems to imply by the word Ἄσβεστον, how could those Napkins or Funeral Shrouds, when once burn’d, be ever handl’d or made use of any more without burning whatever they came near or touch’d? The second Objection is taken from Pliny’s own Words, who tells us, this sort of Flax was very scarce and of great Price, being preserv’d for the Kings of that Country only, so that ’tis highly probable the Egyptians might make use of another sort of Cloth, |Lapis Amiantus.| made of the Stone Amiantus, for burning their Bodies, and which, Pliny says, they had the Art of Spinning at that Time. Plutarch also assures us that in his Time there was a Quarry of that Stone in the Island of Negropont, and that the like was to be found in the Isle of Cyprus, Tines, and else-where. Moreover, ’tis the common Opinion of the Learned, that both Funeral Shrouds or Sheets, Table-Cloths, Napkins and the Wieks of the Perpetual Lamps of the Ancients, were made of this Lapis Amiantus, which Linnen, &c. Porcacchius and Ludovicus Vives have particularly spoken of before: Besides, as Dasamus relates, the Emperor Constantine caus’d Wieks to be made of this Flax for those Lamps which burn’d perpetually in his Bathing Place, and Agricola affirms, that both Napkins, Table-Cloths, &c. were made at Rome, and at Vereberge in Bohemia, of this Lapis Amiantus, which instead of washing when dirty, they were wont to cleanse and purifie by Fire. The best sort of this Stone was to be had in Cyprus and India, from the former of which Countries it came to be call’d Lapis Cyprius and Linum Cyprium; |Lapis Cyprius and Linum Cyprium.| but of late there has been very good found in some Mines of Italy, of which see Philosophical Transact. No. 72. This Stone being beaten with a Hammer, and the Earth and Dust shaken out, appears like to Flax with its Filaments, and then is spun and woven into Cloth, which Art, says Dr. Grew in his Description of the Rarities in Gresham-College, as well as the Use is thought to be utterly lost, tho’ it be not really so; for Septalius in his Musæum has or lately had, both Thread, Ropes, Paper and Net-work, all made of this Flax, and some of them with his own Hand. But Grew seems to make Asbestinus Lapis and Amiantus all one, and calls them in English the Thrum-Stone; he says it grows in short Threads or Thrums, from about a quarter of an Inch to an Inch in length, parallel and glossy, as fine as those small single Threads the Silk-Worm spins, and very flexile like to Flax or Tow. There are several pieces of this kind in the aforesaid Musæum, both white and green, of which the latter has the longest Threads and the most flexile.

Others think the Funeral Shrouds, wherein the dead Bodies of Kings were burn’d, as also the Wieks of those Perpetual Lamps were made of the Lapis Carystius, |Lapis Carystius.| a Stone so call’d from the City Carystos, and which signifies, Ardens Tela, quod ex Lapide Carystio texeretur; Tela cujus sordes Igne purgabantur. The Inhabitants kemb’d, spun and wove this downy Stone into Mantles, Table-Linnen and the like, which when foul they purify’d again with Fire instead of Water, as Mattheus Raderus mentions in his Comment on the 77th Epigr. of the IX. Book of Martial. Also Pausanias in Atticis, and Plutarch Lib. De Oraculorum defectu, deliver that the Wieks of Lamps made hereof, and burn’d with Oil, never consum’d, tho’ the latter says the Stone was not to be found in his Time. |Linum Carpasium.| Others say it was the Linum Carpasium which was apply’d to all these Uses, so call’d a Carpaso, Cypri Urbe, and that Linnen made thereof was call’d Carbasa, which Solinus says, would endure Fire without consuming. Sometimes also ’tis call’d Linum Cyprium, |Cyprium.| of which kind of Flax it was made, and they report the before-mention’d Podocatterus, a Cyprian Knight, shew’d a piece of it to the Venetians, and which he cleans’d by burning in the Fire. Franciscus Ruæus, Albertus Magnus, Cælius Rhodiginus, Camillus, Leonardus, Isiodorus, and many other famous Writers alledge, if a Wiek be made of this kind of Flax, it will not consume with Fire, and Pausanias particularly says, the Wiek of the Golden Lamp of Minerva was made hereof. Much like this, if not directly the same, was the Flax call’d Linum Creticum; |Creticum.| for, as Solinus asserts, those Carbasa, that would endure the Fire, were made in Crete. Also Strabo says this Linum Creticum was made out of a Rock, beaten into Threads, and the Earthy Matter shaken out, after which ’twas kemb’d and woven into Cloth which was not to be consum’d, but might be cleans’d by burning.

Other Authors say inconsumable Cloth, and the Wieks of Perpetual Lamps were made of the Stones Magnesia, Alumen Sciscile, and the like; |Magnesia, Alumen Sciscile, &c.| but whether under different Denominations one thing might be meant, I can by no means pretend to determin, altho’ Hieronymus Mercurialis thinks Linnen made of the Lapis Carystius to be the same which Pliny calls Linum vivum, Pausanias, Carpasium, Solinus, Carbasum, Zoroaster, Bostrichitem, others Corsoidem, some Poliam or Spartopoliam, and the common People Villam Salamandræ. Tho’ after all, the Ancients might very probably have some other Invention for burning Bodies, such as to set them on the Fire in a Coffin of Stone, Brass or Iron, from whence it was very easie to gather the Ashes and Bones that were not consum’d; and as for the Lamps some are of Opinion they had no Wieks at all: Among these was Licetus, who believes the antient Lamps wanted Wieks, because few or none of them have been found, and Ludovicus Vives is the only Person that affirms he has seen any; but this is nevertheless a conjectural Opinion, since they might have been destroy’d either by Time, Fire or any other Accident. However, he at least affirms the Wiek of a Lamp not to be absolutely necessary towards its burning, by reason Camphir, Naptha, Oil of Bricks, liquid Bitumen, and the like, will for the most part take Fire without any addition of a Wiek. Ferrarius, on the contrary, does not deny but rather confirm the use of Wieks, making the Question dubious, |Whether the Perpetuity of a Lamp proceeded from the Oil or Wiek.| whether the perpetuity of Light in Lamps proceeded mostly from the Oil or Wiek? If from the Oil, says he, why did they generally go out upon the admission of Air into the Sepulchre at its first opening? For Air or a gentle gale of Wind is not commonly found prejudicial to the flame of Oil, but only violent Blasts or Storms, which if absent, the Flame or Light will continue so long as the Aliment lasts. But how then came the Lamps of Minerva, Pallas and others not to be extinguish’d by the rushing in of Wind or sprinkling of Dust, and only by breaking the Lamp? Surely there must needs have been two kinds of inconsumable Oil, one which fear’d any admission of Air, and another which defy’d the most violent storms of Rain or Wind; or perhaps one might be the effect of an Oil-Lamp without any Wiek, and the other of a Lamp which had both Oil and Wiek, which certainly must have been the most permanent. For grant there are some Oils so spirituous and inflammable, that they will of themselves catch Fire at a great distance, yet must these needs be too volatile to occasion a Lamp to burn perpetually, unless they are fix’d with some more permanent Matter, |Both Wiek and Oil in a Lamp.| and then they cannot be so easily lighted without a Wiek; neither can we understand how it should burn so above the Lamp, unless the Flame be supported by a little Cord or Wiek, the Vehicle of the Oil: Besides, What can that little Foramen at the Beak of all the Lamps mean, but only to thrust the Wiek and Light out at? ’Tis plain therefore they had Wieks, but what they were made of, whether of Asbestos, Amiantus, or any of the before-mention’d Things, is somewhat difficult to decide; forasmuch as they being reported both to have been inconsumable and inextinguishable, when once lighted, they must needs have burn’d perpetually, and consequently the Lamps have had no occasion for any Oil; but this is certainly false, for both the Lamps and Funeral Shrouds burn’d only so long as there was any Oil, Fat, or oleaginous Moisture remaining, which being consum’d they likewise ceas’d, yet might perhaps remain unconsum’d, but that without any Flame. However, we must not deny there were any Wieks in Lamps, because they could not, as most are of opinion, continue to burn of themselves without any oily inflammable Matter, but rather all believe both the Oil and Wiek had a Virtue to assist each other, and on the contrary could not burn separately for any duration or considerable Time. But some have thought quite otherwise of this matter, viz. That what Country-Peasants imagine they see at the first breaking up of such Sepulchres are only the sudden irradiations and reflections of the Sun in those dark Caves, or else some sparks of Light rais’d by the percussion or attrition of their Iron-Tools against the Stones, a glimmering Vapour of the Earth, or the like Appearances, which being heightn’d by the strength of their prepossess’d Fancy, they easily take to be one of the Perpetual Lamps of the Ancients, which had burn’d ’till then, but was immediately extinguish’d upon the rushing in of the Air, or accidental breaking of the Lamp. But Gutherius thinks the contrary; he imagines it was some Liquor or Pouder which took fire at the entring in of the Air: And Johan. Sigism. Elholtius, in his Observations de Phosphoris, p. 9. obs. 2. Sect. 4. compares his liquid Phosphorus or Cold Fire, as he terms it, with the Lamps of the Ancients in these Words: |Perpetual Burning Lamp thought to be liquid Phosphorus.| Plura circa frigidum hunc Ignem Phœnomina hactenus non observavimus, in posterum tamen istis experimentis plus operæ sumus impensuri, & postea communicaturi. Profecto, si conjectura quorundam de Lucernis Veterum Sepulchralibus vera est, quod scilicet non Mille vel amplius Annos illa arserint, sed quod apertæ demum ardere cæperint, tum utique ab Oleo illo Antiquorum, non multum obfuerit hic Phosphorus liquidus. Qui enim quiescens & obturatus haud nitet, apertus & inter aperiendum motus, corruscare atque flagrare incipit: restauratæq; hoc pacto forent Lucernæ illæ, multis retro Seculis inter Deperdita ab omnibus relatæ. We have not hitherto observ’d more Phœnomena concerning this Cold Fire, nevertheless intend for the future to spend more Time and Labour in these Experiments, and then will communicate them to the Public. But surely if a certain Conjecture concerning the Lamps of the Ancients be true, viz. That they burn’d not a Thousand or more Years, but at length when they came to be discover’d began to burn, then certainly this liquid Phosphorus cannot differ much from that Oil of the Ancients, which lying quiet and stopp’d up, hardly shines; but being open’d, in the motion of opening begins to corruscate and burn, and after this manner those Lamps would be restor’d, which are related by all to have been lost for many Ages.

Licetus’s Opinion that a Perpetual Lamp may be made.

Nevertheless, Licetus endeavours to persuade us that a Pabulum for Fire may be given with such an equal Temperament, as cannot be consum’d but after a long Series of Ages, and so that neither the Matter shall exhale but strongly resist the Fire, nor the Fire consume the Matter, but be restrain’d by it, as it were with a Chain, from flying upward. This, says Sir Thomas Brown in his Vulgar Errors, p. 124. speaking of Lamps which have burn’d many Hundreds of Years, included in close Bodies, proceeds from the Purity of the Oil, which yeilds no fuliginous Exhalations to suffocate the Fire; for if Air had nourish’d the Flame, then it had not continu’d many Minutes, for it would certainly in that case have been spent and wasted by the Fire.

But the Art of preparing this inconsumable Oil is lost, having perish’d long since, as Pancirollus assures us, but neither he nor any other Learned Man has given us any convincing Proof that there ever was such a Thing, but only think to amuse us with a wonderful Art, and then tell us only it is quite lost. And for my part I cannot see hitherto that all that has been wrote or said on this Subject is sufficient to prove there ever was any such Thing, and much more that it ever could be made. Licetus, who has argu’d most on this Head, is confuted by Aresius, and in a word, all that can be alledg’d is, that if this Art be not impossible to be effected, it is nevertheless as difficult to be attain’d to, by any Human Invention, as the Perpetual Motion or Philosophers Stone, therefore I shall not trouble my Thoughts any farther about these Lamps, but only look on them as so many Hieroglyphics or Symbols of the Immortality of the Soul, and heartily pray that we may not want Oil in our Lamps when the Bridegroom shall come, but be prepar’d to enjoy Eternal Light with him, which is the devout Prayer of,

SIR,

Your most Obliged

Humble Servant,

Thomas Greenhill.

FINIS.

A
CATALOGUE
OF
Authors quoted in this Book.

A.

Absyrtus.

Cl. Ælianus.

Aëtius.

Agellius.

Albertus Leoninus.

Albertus magnus.

P. Alpinus.

D. Ambrosius.

Ammianus Marcellinus.

Apella Judæus.

Petr. Appianus.

Appion.

Apuleius.

Aretius.

Aristoteles.

Aristides.

Arnobius.

Artemidorus.

Athenagoras.

Athenæus.

D. Augustinus.

Avicenna.

Aurelius.

M. Aurelius Antoninus.

Sext. Aurelius Victor.

B.

Lord Bacon.

Rob. Baronius, Cardinalis.

Barthius.

Tho. Bartholinus.

Bartholomæus.

Sir John Beaumont, Kt.

Bellonius.

Bellori.

Phil. Bergomas.

Joh. Bilsius.

Steph. Blancardus.

Boccatius.

Ol. Borrichius.

Bossuet.

Botio.

Sir Tho. Brown, Kt.

Dr. Edw. Brown.

M. Corneille le Bruyn.

Tit. Liv. Burattinus.

Gilb. Burnet, D. D.

Joan. Buxtorfius.

C.

Cælius Rhodiginus.

Joh. Calvin.

Camden.

Camerarius.

Camillus.

Jac. Capellus.

Hier. Cardanus.

Joan. Bapt. Casalius.

Casimirus.

Cedrenus.

Gabr. Clauderus.

Clemens Alexandrinus.

Cl. Claudianus.

William Clark.

Herm. Conringius.

Cornelius Celsus.

Joan. Chrysostomus.

Chytræus.

M. T. Cicero.

Franc. Citesius.

Val. Cordus.

Joan. Costæus.

Tho. Creech.

Q. Curtius.

D.

Delachampius.

Mart. Delrius.

Democritus.

Demosthenes.

Diodorus Siculus.

Dionysius Halicarnassæus.

Ped. Dioscorides.

Joh. Dryden.

E.

Bishop of Ely.

Joan. Sigism. Elholtius.

Eratosthenes.

Sebast. Ericius.

Mich. Etmullerus.

Euripides.

Eusebius.

F.

Pet. Faber.

Firmianus.

Erasm. Franciscus.

Wolfg. Franzius.

G.

Cl. Galenus.

Aulus Gellius.

B. Gerhard.

Conr. Gesnerus.

Sax. Grammaticus.

Joh. Greaves.

Gretserus.

Hug. Grotius.

Andr. Gryphius.

Antonio de Guevara.

Claude Guichard.

Melch. Guilandius.

Gutherius.

Lil. Gyraldus.

H.

Joan. Henr. Heideggerus.

Heliodorus.

Henshaw.

M. Joan. Herbinius.

Herodotus.

Hermolaus Barbarus.

Pet. Heylin.

Hippocrates.

Aul. Hirtius.

Homer.

I.

Jacobonus.

Iamblichus.

Jarchas.

St. Jerome.

Josephus.

Isiodorus.

Isocrates.

Justinus.

Juvenalis.

K.

Athan. Kircher.

Joan. Kirkmannus.

Barth. Korndorferus.

Kornmannus.

L.

Lactantius.

Langius.

Wolfg. Lazius.

Lampridius.

Leander.

Leo Africanus.

Leonardus.

Andr. Libavius.

Phil. Libertus.

Fortun. Licetus.

Just. Lipsius.

T. Livius.

Lucanus.

Lucianus.

Lucretius.

Nich. Lyranus.

M.

Macrobius.

Maimonides.

Sim. Maiolus.

Manetho.

Martialis.

Martinus.

Franc. Maturantius.

Matthiolus.

Andr. Maurocenus.

Pomp. Mela.

P. Menestrier.

Minutius Felix.

Hieron. Mercurialis.

Joh. Milton.

Bened. Ar. Montanus.

N.

Joan. Nardius.

Natalis Comes.

Greg. Nazianzen.

Nicephorus Callistus.

Joan. Nicolaius.

Nubiensis Geographia.

O.

Origen.

P.

Pet. Pais.

Guid. Pancirollus.

Onuph. Panvinus.

Pausanias.

Louis Penicher.

Petronius Arbiter.

Philostratus.

Philoxenes.

Pierius.

Pflaumerus.

Plato.

Plautus.

Plinius.

Plutarchus.

Podocatterus.

Tho. Porcacchius.

Porphyrius.

J. Bap. Porta.

Proclus.

Prosper Alpinus.

Aur. Prudentius.

Ptolomæus.

Q.

Joan. Andr. Quenstedt.

R.

Matth. Raderus.

Jo. Raius.

Radzivillus.

Rhasis.

Cæl. Rhodiginus.

Andr. Rivetus.

Hier. Ruscellius.

Fran. Ruæus.

Frid. Ruysh.

S.

Cl. Salmasius.

Alph. Salmeron.

Henr. Salmuthius.

Sanctius.

Sanchuniathon.

Sandys.

Santorellus.

Saturnius.

Saxo Grammaticus.

Jul. Cæs. Scaliger.

Bernardin. Scardeonius.

Mich. Schatta.

Schiangia.

Joan. Schroderus.

Seleucus.

Seneca.

Serapion.

Servius.

Cabr. Sionita.

Silius Italicus.

Solinus.

Sopranes.

P. Statius.

Spartianus.

Nich. Steno.

Suetonius.

Suidas.

Sulpitius Severus.

Joh. Swammerdam.

T.

Corn. Tacitus.

Alex. Tassonius.

Tatian.

Father Telles.

William Arch-bishop of Tyre.

Theophrastus.

Thevenot.

Tolosanus.

Alphons. Tostatus.

Joan. Trithemius.

V.

Valerianus.

Valerius Maximus.

Vallæus.

Vanslebius.

Varro.

Rich. Verstegan.

Joan. Veslingius.

P. Virgilius Maro.

Polyd. Vergilius.

Fl. Vopiscus.

Raph. Volaterranus.

W.

Weever.

Ol. Wormius.

X.

Xenophon.

Xiphilinus.

Z.

Zoroaster.

Zosimus.

THE
TABLE

A.

Abel-mizraim, 283.

Abiit, non obiit, why writ on Tombs, 55.

Abraham’s Burying-place, 8.

Absalom, how buried, 52.

—— his Pillar, ibid. & 86.

Achan and King Ai buried under a Heap of Stones, 51.

Acherusia, 301.

Achilles feared Sea-burial, 48.

Act of Burial, 72, 82.

Adam, where buried, 8.

Æneas, why called by the Name of Pious, 34.

—— afraid of Sea burial, 45.

—— took care of Sepulture, 43.

Agues malignant, 165.

Æthiopians, how they Embalm, 63.

Air and Water of Egypt both very good, 158.

Air of Egypt, very hot, 146.

—— —— cool’d by the Nile, and Annual Winds, ib.

—— —— moist, prejudicial to Embalming, 151.

—— —— unequal, bad for Embalming, 159.

Air poisoned, 13.

—— moist, infected by a putrid Carcass, 14.

Alexander very careful of his Sepulture, 42.

—— his Burial, 217, 218, 219, 220.

—— made a magnificent Funeral for his Horse Bucephalus, 30.

Alexandria, 211.

—— eminent for the Liberal Sciences, 215.

—— how industrious and flourishing, 235.

—— its Earth full of Nitre, 220.

Aloes, what meant by that Word in Embalming, 253.

Ἀλλάσσοντες, 185.

Amiantus Lapis, 360.

Anatomy, why so called, 180.

—— its Encomium, 182.

—— very useful in Embalming, ibid.

—— anciently performed by great and holy Men, 251.

Ancients feared Sea burial, 45.

Animals which bury their Dead, 26.

—— embalmed with Cedar, 274.

Anointing the Dead, 59, 60, 61.

—— a kind of Embalming, ib.

—— to what purpose used, 63.

Apis, 199.

Ἀφρόνιτρον, 260.

Apoplexy, 165.

Apollo the younger, 175.

Apothecary, 61, 62, 177, 188.

Armais, 173, 174.

Arithmetic, how first invented, 231.

Arts, how first invented, 229.

—— most flourishing in the Reign of Amasis, 235.

—— can never flourish where Quacks and Undertakers are, 179.

Art of making Gold and Silver, 183.

—— of tinging Glass, and making artificial Stones, 185.

—— of Distilling, Calcining, &c. 186.

—— of Bandage, 188.

—— of Poisoning the Air, 13.

- which chiefly consists of Man’s Flesh, 14.

Asa’s Burial, 61.

Asphalt, 276.

—— how us’d in Embalming, ib. & 288.

Assius Lapis, 257.

Astrology of the Egyptians, 191.

—— how invented, 231.

Athothus, the ancient Egyptian Mercury, 170.

—— Inventor of Images, Characters, and Dancing, ib.

—— Sacrific’d Animals, and learned Embalming and Anatomy, 172.

Ἄταφον τάφον, 38.

Attiring the Corps, 64.

—— with white Vests, 66.

—— why it should be used, 66, 68.

—— what sort only exclaim’d against, 67.

Asbestos Lapis, 357.

—— its Oil, ib.

Asbeston, seu Asbestinum, 358.

—— two Objections against it, 359.

Averruncal Statues, 298.

Authors who have written of Sepulchral Lamps, 330.

B.

Babylon, 204.

—— in Chaldea, 225.

Babylonians, how they embalmed, 63.

Balsam Plant, 208.

—— Its Description, 209.

—— Virtues, 110.

Basaltes, an Ethiopic Stone, 251.

Bechira seu Bechiria, 127.

Bees, how they bury and embalm themselves, 28.

Berd il Agiuz, 154.

Bergwachs, 277.

Beth-chajim, 17.

Bitumen Judaicum, 276, 288.

Body, why to be taken care of, 25, 103, 105.

—— the Temple of God, 25.

—— stuff’d with Medicinal Ingredients, 252.

—— with Myrrh, Aloes, and Cinnamon, 253.

—— preserv’d in a Salt-Pit, 269.

—— salted with Nitre, 241, 254, 255, 269.

—— only prepared with Pissasphalt, 278.

—— with artificial Pissasphalt, ib.

—— why burnt, 50, 119.

First-born of Egypt slain, 343, 344.

Brain how extracted, 241, 248, 249.

Brutes buried with Pomp and Magnificence, 30.

A great Burning made for King Asa, 61.

Burning the Dead, how order’d, 83.

—— why used, 82.

—— how long continued in use, 85.

—— as liable to be ill treated by an Enemy as Burial, 50.

—— an ignominious Way of Burial, 85.

Burial, its Rise and Antiquity, 8.

—— 1st Cause of it, ib.

—— 2d Cause, 9.

—— 3d Cause, 16.

—— 4th Cause, 17.

—— 5th Cause, ib.

Burial, thought more beneficial to the Living than Dead, 9, 10.

—— frees from the Terror of Death, 11.

—— preserves Bodies from Putrifaction, 11, 15.

—— —— from the Plague, 12, 15, 27.

Burial, a Work acceptable to God, 33.

—— to our Saviour, ib.

—— an Act of Justice, ib.

—— a Work of Piety and Religion, ib.

—— of Mercy and Humanity, ib.

Burial, the Care of the Gods, 35.

—— an Honour to the Dead, ib.

—— an Happiness, Favour and Kindness, ib.

—— called by various Names, 33, 34.

—— how called by the Saxons, 92.

Burial-place, called by several Names, 17.

Burial in the City, 93. Vide, Places of Sepulture.

—— by some used in the Day, by others in the Night, 72.

—— more ancient than Burning, 85.

—— observ’d by Brutes as well as Men, 26.

—— decent, what, 49.

—— ignominious, what, 49, 51.

Why there ought to be different kinds of Burial, 35, 52, 53.

Burial, why despised by some, 21, 22.

—— in what Sense the Philosophers slighted it, 23.

—— the Want of it not prejudicial to the Soul, 18.

—— yet much feared by the Heathens, 21.

—— as believing the Souls of the unburied wandred 100 Years, ib.

Burial, the want of it a Punishment, 47.

—— some kinds of it a Punishment, 49, 51, 52.

To be buried like an Ass, a Curse, 38.

C.

Cæsar’s Palace, 213.

Cairo, Old and New, 205.

Caleg, 165.

Campus Sceleratus, or Burying-place of the Vestal Virgins, 50.

Campus Martius, 89.

Camsins, 154, 155.

Canal, or Khalis, 206, 213.

Canibals, eat Man’s Flesh, 14.

Cardan’s Mausoleum for a Fly, 29.

Care the Ancients took of Sepulture, 32.

Carrying forth the Corps, 71.

—— —— how managed, 73.

Carver, 286.

Castle of Roude, 133.

Cataracts of Nile, 130.

—— the greater, ib.

—— the lesser, 131.

Caves near the Pyramids, 323.

Cave called the Church, 329.

—— with two Mummies in it, ib.

Cedar-Ship built by Sesostris, 183.

Cedria, what, 271.

—— its Liquor, Oil, Pitch, Gum, &c. 272.

—— its Virtues, ib.

—— Clysters made of it, and their Operations, 273.

Cenotaphs, 97, 99.

—— why built, ib. &, 98.

Cera di Minera, 277.

Ceremonies in Funerals not to be neglected, 53.

—— how and when useful, 102.

Charon, 245, 301.

Cheop’s Tomb, 318.

—— the spacious Chamber which contains it, ib.

Chimistry invented by Hermes, 183.

Chimical Medicines useful in Embalming, 186, 245.

Cimon the Athenian buried his Horses, 30.

Cleopatra’s Palace, 214.

Clerk, who, 280.

Climate of Egypt, 145.

Closing the Eyes, 55.

—— —— why used, 56.

Coffins made of Sycamore, 295.

Conclamation, 57, 58.

—— thought useless by Santorellus, 58.

Cold Fire, a sort of Phosphorus, 365.

Cold of the old Hag, a Season so call’d, 154.

Colossus made of Emerald, 9 Cubits high, 186.

Collerus’s Funeral Oration, 43.

Comparative Anatomy, 4.

Corpora Condita, 285.

Corpus Medicatum, 284.

Corps, (Handsome) well-pleasing to the Ancients, 57.

—— why it soonest consumes in a Church-yard, 15.

Creatures, every one takes care of their own Funeral, 27.

Crowning the Dead, 69.

—— a Reward to Vertue, ib. & 70.

—— whence deriv’d, and to what end, 69.

Cryptæ, 202.

—— why so call’d, 96.

—— Kiovienses, 95.

—— one found at Nismes, 96.

Curing a Corps, what, 188.

Cynocephalus, 231.

D.

David’s Sepulchre, 37.

Day of Burial, when, 72.

—— of Burning, ib.

Delta, why so called, 127, 131.

Dead Bodies, why kept 7 Days, 58.

—— kept in their Houses, 304.

—— plac’d at the Table, ib.

Dead Sea, 143.

Death compar’d to Sleep, 56, 110.

Dei Ager aut Fundus, 17.

Delphian Oracle, how to be understood, 4.

Demonactes, how he desired to be buried, 23.

Deprivation of ones Sepulchre, a Curse, 37.

Description of the Ichnography and Scenography of the Subterranean Caves, 327.

—— of some Lamps, 333.

—— of the first and fairest Pyramid, 312.

—— of the Gallery, 316.

Dew of Egypt, 156.

Difference between Ecclesiastical and Criminal Burial, 49.

Dioclesian, why he burnt all Chimical Books, 184.

Diodorus Siculus’s Account of the Egyptian Funerals, 243.

Diogenes’ jocose Sayings concerning Sepulture, 22.

The Dissector, 177, 183, 250, 285.

Designer, 177, 250, 290.

Dolphins take care of their Dead, 26.

Domus Viventium, 17.

Dormitorium, 17, 100, 110.

Dresses and Ornaments of the Mummies, 294.

Dropsie, 164.

Drugs brought by the Caravan, 207.

To become like Dung, rotting upon the Earth, the severe Judgment and Punishment of God, 39, 40.

E.

Eccho very remarkable in the great Pyramid, 315.

Egypt, how scituate and bounded, 124.

—— its Denominations, 125.

—— why called Ægyptus, ib.

—— Govern’d by Coptus, 126.

—— its Extent, ib.

—— ancient and modern Division, ib.

—— its Fertility, 139.

—— the drying Quality of its Earth, 153.

—— Mistress of the World, and Mother of all Arts and Sciences, 190.

—— its Number of Cities and Inhabitants, 236.

—— how it came to be so populous, ib.

Egyptian, Æsculapius, 172.

—— Apollo, 169.

—— Mercury, 170.

—— Arts, how they came to be lost, 184.

Egyptians, their Characters, ancient and modern, 160.

—— their Make, Complexion, and Temper, 161.

—— Women very fruitful in Children, ib.

—— their Constitution and Habit of Body, 162.

—— very long liv’d, ib.

—— their Diseases, 163.

—— first Authors of Medicine, 168.

—— well skill’d in Anatomy, 179.

—— —— in Ostiology, 182.

—— their Antiquity, 190.

—— Inventions, ib.

—— Astrology, 191.

—— Mathematics, ib.

—— Architecture, 193.

—— their Opinion of the Metempsychosis, 238.

—— their Belief of the Resurrection, 106, 240.

—— Famous in Arts and Sciences, 189.

—— the first Inventors of them, 190.

—— by what Means they perform’d such wonderful Works, 237.

—— and to what end, ib.

—— the first Inventors of Embalming, 61.

—— why they embalmed Bodies, 106.

—— how they embalm’d them, 238, 248.

—— they embalmed Cats, Crocodiles, Hawks, &c. 32.

—— they set their Dead on their Feet, 85.

—— they deny’d Burial to executed Persons, 47.

Elatio, or the carrying forth a Corps, 71.

Elephants bury their Dead, 29.

Embalming, a noble Art, 4.

—— a Branch of Surgery, 2.

—— very useful in Natural Philosophy, Physiology, Divinity, Physic, &c. 2, 3, 4.

—— chiefly practised by Undertakers, 2.

—— particularly useful in Anatomy and Surgery, 3.

—— teaches Medicines against Gangrenes, &c. 4.

—— what accounted by the Ancients, and what by the present Age, 4, 5.

—— its Antiquity, 5.

—— invented by the Egyptians, ib.

—— of general Use, ib.

—— by most despised, ib.

—— the chief of all funeral Ceremonies, 103.

—— the best Way of Preserving the Memory of the Dead, 107.

—— not contrary to the Scriptures, 108.

—— acceptable to God, 112.

—— approved by our Saviour, 115.

—— an Emblem of the Resurrection, 112.

Embalming, in a general sense very extensive, 115.

—— the most durable thing, 117.

—— useful in Phisiology and Physic, 18.

—— in Anatomy, ib.

—— in Surgery, ib.

—— necessary for transporting Bodies, 119.

—— secures from the Insults of Animals, 120.

—— what intended by it, 120, 121.

—— that of the Hebrews different from that of the old Egyptians, 61.

Embalming, how found out, 233.

—— 2 or 3 sorts of it, 241, 242, 275, viz.

—— with Pissasphalt, 287.

—— with Cedar, ib.

—— with Asphalt, 288.

—— with Aromatics, ib.

Embalming of Jacob, 281.

—— —— performed in 40 Days, 282.

Embalmer, 177.

—— much honoured, 250.

Embowelling a Corps, 251.

Entrance into the Caves, 326.

Enoch and Elijah, neither dy’d nor corrupted, 115.

Epitaph on a Bee, 28.

Epagomene, 153.

Ἐνταφιοπώλις, 286.

Ἐνταφιαστής, ib. & 280, 286.

Erdwachs, 277.

Erriff, 127.

Euripides’s Opinion of Sepulture, 35.

Expences of a Funeral, insignificant without Embalming, 102.

Experiments concerning Scarcity of Rain in Egypt, 157.

—— of the Water, 158.

—— for making eternal Fire, 352.

—— the 1st, ib.

—— the 2d, 354.

F.

Fame the Goddess of Embalming, 117.

Feasts for the Dead, 84.

—— of Lamps, 341.

—— to what end instituted, 343.

—— the true and sacred Reason, ib.

Fengo, the Tyrant’s Ashes scattered by the Winds, 51.

Fire an Emblem of the Soul, 331.

—— —— of Life eternal, 332.

—— thought by the Persians to be a God, 239.

—— —— by the Egyptians a living creature, ib.

Following the Corps, 82.

To become Food to Birds and Beasts, a Curse, 39, 40.

French, why they deny’d Burial, 25.

Funeral, why so called, 73.

—— Rites, why called Justa Funebria, 34.

—— Oration spoke before Battel, 43.

—— Procession, 282.

—— Games, 84.

Funus odoratum, 289.

Furca, or a Gibbet: All such as were hanged thereon, were by the Laws deny’d Burial, 48.

G.

Gabbares, 240.

Gemelhazar, 234.

Gauls embalmed with Oil of Cedar, 274.

Generals put to Death for neglecting to Bury the Dead, 42.

Gentiles, assign’d the Care of Funerals to certain Gods, 35.

Geometry, how invented, 231.

Gibnehalon, 163.

Gotsacker, 17.

Granaries of Joseph, 204.

Graves in the Highway, or under the Gallows, 49.

To be dug out of one’s Grave, a Curse and Punishment, 50.

Greeks deny’d decent Burial to infamous Persons and Criminals, 47.

Gulph of Mecca, or Arabian Gulph, 140.

Gymnasium, what it signifies, 171.

Gymnastic Art, ib.

H.

Hannibal took great care of Burial, 42.

Hatching of Chickens at Grand Cairo, 207.

Halmirhaga, 258.

Heliogabalus’s Body dragg’d about Streets, and flung into a Common-shoar, 51.

Henry the Seventh’s Chappel, 87.

Herald, 76, 286.

Hermes Trismegistus, 173.

—— supposed to be Armais, ib.

—— a great Philosopher, Priest and King, ibid.

—— —— establisher of Magic, 174.

Herodotus’s Account of the Egyptian Funerals, 241.

Hieroglyphic Characters, 290.

—— their signification, 293.

Highwaymen deny’d Burial, and set up on Wheels, &c. 48.

Homer’s Opinion of Sepulture, 35.

Horace’s Monument, 116.

Hypogeum, 96, 202.

I.

Ichnography and Schenography of the Burial Places, 203.

Jews deriv’d their Manner of Embalming from the Egyptians, 61.

Jewish Embalming rather a Ceremony than Preserving a Corps, 62.

Injectio Glebæ, 92.

Inscriptions on Tombs, 87, 90, 94, 95, 196.

Insects, which take Care of their Dead, 26.

—— how they bury themselves, 28.

—— some burn’d and others embalm’d, 29.

Insepulta sepultura, 38.

Interment, the first Cause of it, 8.

Josiah took Bones out of their Sepulchers and burnt them, 50.

Isis taught the Egyptians salubrious Plants, 168.

—— the Inventor of Images, 170.

Isle of Pharos, 220.

Judging the Dead, 244, 302.

K.

ΚΕΝΟΤΆΦΙΟΝ, 97.

Khalis of Cleopatra, 220.

Kissing the Dead, 54.

—— to what end used, ib. & 55.

—— rather prejudicial than otherwise, 55.

Κοιμητήριον, 17.

Korah, Dathan, and Abiran, buried alive, 49.

L.

Labyrinth, 222.

—— by whom and to what end built, 223, 224.

Lake Mœris, 141.

—— —— why so called, 142.

—— Asphaltites, 143, 144.

Lamps perpetual, to what end invented, 331, 343.

—— supposed to have burnt in the first Pyramid, 333.

—— in subterranean Caves and Vaults, 96, 333.

—— that have burn’d by a Divine Power, 351.

—— that have burn’d by the Wiles of the Devil, ib.

—— —— or from a natural Cause, 352.

—— or can be made with Gold, Silver, &c. 353.

—— or Mercury, ib.

—— with Naptha, 355.

—— with liquid Bitumen, or Petroleum, 356.

—— confirm’d by Schiangia, ib.

—— and believed by Kircher, ib.

—— whether their Perpetuity proceeded from the Oil or Wick, 363.

—— thought to be a sort of Phosphorus, 365.

—— how made according to Licetus’s Opinion, 366.

—— Hieroglyphics, or Symbols of the Immortality of the Soul, 367.

Lamp of the Alexandrian Pharos, 337.

—— with a Dog’s Head, 340.

—— found at Edessa, 351.

—— of a Heliotrope, 336.

—— of Jupiter Ammon, 350.

—— with four Lights, 339.

—— of Minerva, 350.

—— of the Moon, 338.

—— of Mycerinus, 341.

—— with an Ox’s Head, 340.

—— of an Ox with a Boy on his Back, 337.

—— of Olybius, 351.

—— of Pallas, 348.

—— of Serapis, 333, 334.

—— of a Sphinx, 338, 339.

—— with two beaked Ships, 339.

—— of a tripple-headed Monster, 334.

—— of Tulliola, 345, 346.

—— of Typhon, 335.

—— of Venus, 351.

Languages and Characters of the Egyptians of two kinds, 291.

Lapis Asbestos, 357.

—— Amiantus, 360.

—— Cyprius, ib.

—— Carystius, 361.

Laws, their Goodness, 234.

—— made to restrain the Extravagancy of Funeral Ceremonies, 73, 79.

Laying out a Corps, 70.

—— why used, 71.

Lazarus embalmed, 62.

Lecticæ seu Lecti, 74.

Letter to Charles Bernard, Esq; 1.

—— to Dr. John Lawson, 123.

—— to Dr. Hans Sloan, 307.

Libitina, 286.

Libitinarii, ib. & 340.

Library of Ptolomy, 185, 216.

Linum vivum, 358.

—— Cyprium, 300, 362.

—— Carpasium, 361.

—— Creticum, 362.

Lodgings of the Priests, 320.

Lucretius, his Opinion of Sepulture, 24.

Lues Venerea, its supposed Origin, 14.

M.

Machpelah, Abraham’s Burying-place, 8.

Magical Medicine spread over most Countries, 175.

Magic used in Embalming, 176.

Magnesia, 362.

Maltem, 155.

Man, the Epitome and Perfection of the Macrocosm, 4.

—— his Elogium, 108.

—— his Transgression, ib.

—— has a right to a Burial-place in the Earth, 7.

Manes, Gods of Funerals, 35.

Mare mortuum, 143.

Caius Marius’s, Bones dug up and flung into the Sea, 50.

Matarea, 208.

Mathematics, 191.

Medicines, why call’d Pharmaca, 175.

Memphis, 199.

Memphitis Lapis, 187.

Memnon’s Statue, 192.

Mercury II., 173.

Merissi, 154, 155.

Metempsychosis, 238.

Milesian Virgins, how deterr’d from hanging themselves, 48.

Mina, what, 197.

Monuments built during Life, 86, 87.

—— why call’d Muniments, 99.

—— why Monuments, 100.

—— made of Glass, 101.

Mourning, 241, 242, 246, 247, 248.

—— the Manner of it, 77.

—— with Sackcloth and Ashes, 78.

—— cutting and tearing the Flesh, ib.

—— Habit, 75.

Mourners feigned, 78.

Mouth of the Dead, why shut, 57.

Mummies found in the Sands, 152.

—— several things found included in them, 297.

—— Sophisticate, 279.

Murderers denied Burial, 47, 48.

N.

Nature has provided Burial and a Grave for all Creatures, 30.

Νεκροκόσμος, 279, 286.

Nicias took great care to bury the slain, 43.

Nicodemus and Joseph embalm’d our Saviour, 62.

Nile River, 127.

—— its Rise and Course, 129.

—— its Cataracts, 130.

—— its Ostia, or Mouths, 132.

—— its Inundation, 132.

—— time of its Increase, 133.

—— its Effects, 134.

—— Cause of its Fertility, 135.

—— of its Increase, 136.

—— Operation of its Waters, 137.

Ninus’s Sepulchre, 225.

Nitrum Chalastræum, 257, 263.

—— Chalastricum, 264.

—— Berenicum, 257.

Nitre Armenian, 258.

—— Lydian, 262.

—— Egyptian, 264.

—— of Buna, 258.

—— of Turkey, ib.

—— three kinds, 260.

—— different Opinions of it, 266.

—— that of the Ancients the same with our Salt Petre, 268.

—— used in Cookery, 269.

—— —— in Embalming, 255.

Nitri Spuma, 257, 260, 265.

Nomi septem, 127.

O.

Obelisk of Semiramis, 191, 228.

—— two at Alexandria, 214.

Observations on the Nile, 135.

—— on the Pyramids, 322.

—— on the subterranean Caves, 327.

Office of Embalming, 279.

Opobalsamum, 210.

Osiris taught the Egyptians Food and Drink, 168.

Orus, Son of Osiris, apply’d for Physic, salubrious Plants, by sacrificing them, 168.

—— to which he added Music, 169.

—— and Poetry, ib.

—— thence thought to be the Egyptian Apollo, ib.

Ossilegium, 84.

Osymandua’s Tomb, 195.

Ovid afraid of Sea-Burial, 46.

Ointment of Children’s Fat used by Witches, 14.

—— of Spikenard, 62.

P.

Pagans not without some hopes of the Resurrection, 24, 112.

Painter, 286, 290.

Painting of the Dead used in France and Italy, 74.

Pall, why used, ib.

Palace of Cleopatra, 214.

—— of the Mamaluke Sultans, 206.

Pallium used by the Greeks to cover their Dead, 65.

Pantænus, first Reader of Divinity and Philosophy, 215.

Patriarchs, where buried, 8.

Pawning the Dead, 246, 303.

Pensil Gardens, 227.

Pentapolis, 144.

Persians, how they Embalm, 63.

Persons present at Funerals, 74.

—— how qualify’d for Embalming, 177.

Pharaoh’s Punishment, 12.

Pharos, or Watch-Tower, 221.

Philosophers contemplated on Life and Death, 7.

—— in what sense they slighted Burial, 23.

Phosphorus, 365.

Physic, how found out, 232.

Physician, 280.

Piaster, what, 329.

Pickle made of Nitre, 266.

Pissasphalt natural, 276.

—— artificial, 278.

—— natural, call’d Mummy, 277.

Places of Sepulture, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94.

Plague, 165.

—— ceases at the Inundation of the Nile, 134, 135, 166.

Plain of Mummies, 329, 330.

Plato defines the Scope and End of his Philosophy, to be only the Consideration of Death, 8.

Pluto, the chief of the Funeral Gods, 35.

Polliacus erected a Tomb in Memory of his beloved Bitch, 30.

Polycharacteristic Statues, 299.

Pollinctor, 177, 285.

Poisons made of Man’s Flesh, 14.

Pox, (French) 165.

—— Small, ib.

Pompey’s Pillar, 212.

—— by whom built, 213.

Præficæ, hired Mourners, 76.

Priests, the proper and only Physicians, 172, 177.

—— their Business, 188.

Problem concerning Diet, 162.

Procession of a Funeral, 76.

Providence of God extends even to the Bodies of the Dead, 33.

Prophylactic Statues, 298.

Psalms and Hymns when introduc’d, 76.

Ptolomean Library, 216.

Puticulæ, 88.

Putrifaction, its pernicious Effects, 11, 12, 13.

Pyramids, 311.

—— why so call’d, 331.

—— to what end built, 237, 309.

—— why of a pyramidal Form, ib.

—— their Number, 310.

—— Scituation, ib.

—— their Founders, ib.

—— Description of the first, 312.

—— the Entrance into it, 313.

—— first and second Gallery, ib.

—— the Well, 314.

—— strange Eccho, 315.

—— fine Gallery, 316.

—— two Anti-Closets, 317.

—— spacious Chamber, 318.

—— Cheop’s Tomb, ib.

—— how many Men employ’d in building it, 319.

Pyramid the second, 319.

—— its Lodgings for the Priests, 320.

—— the third, ib.

Q.

Quacks, who, 177.

—— none in Egypt, 178.

Quietorium seu Requietorium, 100.

R.

Rains in Egypt, 147, 155.

Red-Sea, 140.

Reflections on the Egyptian Embalming, 246.

Resurrection, the Hope of it the chief Cause of Burial, 18.

Right of Burial and Funeral Ceremonies, 5.

—— grounded on the Law of God and Nature, 25.

Roulers, how prepar’d, 289.

Rudder of a Ship, how first invented, 230.

S.

Sacara, how the Inhabitants get their Livelyhood, 325.

Sacrifices to the Dead, 84.

Sacrilegious Persons deny’d Burial, 47.

Sand, how useful in Embalming, 151.

Sandapilarii, 74.

Salt made of the Nile Waters, 139, 220.

—— used with Balsamics preserves Bodies, 270.

Salitores, Salters, or Pollinctors, 254, 285.

Sarah, where buried, 8.

Scabs and Leprosie of Egypt, 164.

Scipio afraid of Sea-Burial, 45.

Scribe, or Designer, 250.

Scroles painted with Characters, 296.

Scythians, how they Embalm, 63.

Sea-Burial, why feared by the Ancients, 46.

Searchers, their Office, 71.

Seasons of the Year, 153.

—— —— temperate, ib.

—— —— cold, 154.

—— —— intemperate, ib.

—— why to be observ’d in Embalming, 156.

Seminatio, 17.

Septuagint, 216.

Serapis, or Apis, the Egyptian Æsculapius, 172.

Serapes, 298.

—— their Forms and Actions, 299.

—— their Use and Virtues, 301.

Serapion, 215, 217.

Sepulchres, why call’d Requietoria, 47.

—— some proper, 94.

—— common, 95.

—— belonging to the Family, ib.

—— hereditary, ib.

Sepulchre, call’d by the Egyptians Domus æterna, 101.

—— why call’d eternal Houses, 305.

—— of Osiris, 200.

—— of Mycerinus’s Daughter, ib.

—— of Alexander, 217.

—— of Ninus, 225.

—— of the Egyptian Kings, 194.

Sepulture rightly accounted Jus Naturæ, 5.

—— a Debt to Nature, ib.

—— ordain’d by God himself, 5.

—— practis’d by the Heathens, 6.

—— asserted in the Scriptures, 7.

—— confirm’d by the Philosophers and Poets, ib.

—— instituted in obedience to the Love of God and Nature, 8.

—— defends from the Plague, 15.

—— and preserves Bodies, ib.

—— why invented, 16.

—— strictly observed in War, 42.

—— yet deny’d some out of Revenge, 41.

—— always esteem’d honourable among God’s People, 85.

Sesostris’s Cedar Ship, 183.

Ships of Arabia, 207.

Silk-worm, spins her own Winding-sheet, 29.

Situation of the Dead in their Sepulchres, 85, 86.

Smell of a Goal very pernicious, 14.

Snow in Egypt, 149.

Somia, the Burial-place of the Ptolomies, 217.

Sorceresses feed on Man’s Flesh, 14.

Sore Eyes and Blindness of the Egyptians, 163.

Soul concern’d at the ill Usage of the Body, 104, 105.

Sounding of Brazen Vessels about the Dead, 57.

Sphinx, 321.

—— represents Momphta, 322.

Stoics, value not the Corruption of the Body, 20.

Stonehenge the Sepulchre of the Britains, 91.

Stones heap’d over a Body, an ignominious sort of Burial, 51, 52.

Summer of Egypt, 154.

Subterranean Caves, 202, 324.

Surgery the chief of Arts, 1.

—— invented and improved in Egypt, 187.

—— how useful in Embalming, 188.

—— teaches the Art of Bandage, ib.

Surgeon, the chief Embalmer, 188, 283.

—— his Business, 284.

Sylla the Dictator, order’d his own Corps to be burnt, that he might not be ill treated by his Enemies, 50, 83.

T.

Taricheutæ, 254, 285.

Τάριχος, 293.

Ταριχεύειν, 254.

Templi Hortus, 17.

Temple of Belus, 226.

Teneriff, the Inhabitants Manner of Sepulture and Embalming, 113.

Thebais, 127.

Thebes, 193.

Θεουργικὴ τέχνη, 171.

Theology of the Egyptians, 238.

Θεραπεύω, its signification, 175.

Thrum-stone, 361.

Thunder seldom heard in Egypt, 156.

Time of carrying forth the Corps, 72.

Tincar, 261.

Tobit’s great Care in burying the Dead, 33.

Toga us’d by the Romans to cloath their Dead with, 65.

Tombs erected for Horses, and honoured with Epitaphs, 30.

—— why dedicated Diis Manibus, 35.

Tomb of a Dog at Rome, 30.

—— of King Amasis, 321.

—— of a Cat, 31.

Tombs, their Use and Benefit, 98.

—— how adorn’d, and with what Inscriptions, 99.

—— how called, 99, 100.

—— why call’d Tumulus, 92, 99.

—— inanis, seu Tumulus sine Corpore, 97.

Traitors deny’d Burial, 47, 48, 49.

V.

Vespillones, why so called, 73.

—— their Office, 74.

Vestal Virgins, how buried, 50.

Vitellius’s Body cut in pieces, and flung into the Tyber, 51.

Unguentum Cedrinum, 287.

Undertakers, 2, 177, 178, 179, 185.

ὙΠΌΓΕΙΟΝ, 96.

Urns of Glass found at Nismes, ib.

W.

Wall built by Sesostris, 224.

Washing a Corps, why used, 60.

—— why with warm Water, 59.

—— why with Salt, ib.

Water of Nile very prolific, 236.

Weeping, if moderate, commendable, 79.

—— us’d by Kings and Patriarchs, ib.

—— by our Saviour, 80.

—— allays Grief, 81.

Wells of embalmed Birds, 328.

A Virgin Well, 329.

Wiek and Oil, both in a Lamp, 364.

Winds which blow most in Egypt, 155.

Winter in Egypt, 154.

Workmen, what Number imploy’d in building the first Pyramid, 319.

Writings thought the best Monument, 116.

X.

Xantippus buried his Dogs, 30.

Χυμεία, 183.

Xylobalsamum, 210.

Z.

Zeilan, Inhabitants their Manner of Sepulture, 113.

FINIS.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

The Table of Contents was added by transcriber.

Made corrections listed in the ERRATA.

Phænician was consistently used instead of Phœnician.

Changed “ἐυπραγεῖν” to “εὐπραγεῖν” in the Amico heading.

Changed “Ε ασατ’ ἠδη” to “Εασατ’ ἤδη”, Ὁθεν δ’ ἓκαστον” to “Ὅθεν δ’ ἕκαστον”, Ἐνταυθ’” to “Ἐνταῦθ’”, and “Ἡ μετερον” to “Ἡμετερον” on p. 6.

Changed “τόν” to “τὸν” on p. 9.

Changed “בית היימ” to “בית חיים” on p. 17.

Changed “Mænibus” to “Mœnibus” on p. 46.

Changed “insicerentur” to “inficerentur” on p. 89.

Changed “κρυπτω” to “κρύπτω” on p. 96.

Changed “ταφος” to “τάφος” and “περί” to “περὶ”on p. 97.

Changed “Synonimous” to “Synonymous” on p. 100.

Changed “Ἀιγύπτος” to “Αἰγύπτος” on p. 126.

Changed “out of the of midst” to “out of the midst” on p. 144.

Changed “Κατὰ δὲ την δὲ την χῶραν οὔτε τότε, ουτε ἄλλοτε, ἄνωθον ἐπί τάς ἄρούρας ὕδωρ ἐπίρῥεῖ” to “Κατὰ δὲ τὴν δὲ τὴν χώραν οὔτε τότε, οὔτε ἄλλοτε, ἄνωθεν ἐπὶ τὰς ἀρούρας ὕδωρ ἐπιῤῥεῖ” on p. 148.

Changed “θεουργική” to “θεουργικὴ” on p. 171.

Changed “ενταφίασταῖς” to “ἐνταφιασταῖς” on p. 172.

Changed “Ἑρμής” to “Ἑρμῆς” on p. 173.

Changed “τό” to “τὸ” on p. 174.

Changed “ἐπαοίδων ἐπαοίδίν” to “ἐπαείδων ἐπαοιδήν” on p. 176.

Changed “χρύσοῦ” to “χρυσοῦ” on p. 183.

Changed “eondem” to “eadem” on p. 183.

Changed “ostiosa” to “otiosa” on p. 183.

Changed “οργάνῶν καὶ κἀμίνων” to “ὀργάνων καὶ καμίνων” on p. 186.

Changed “Αλλάσσοντες” to “Ἀλλάσσοντες” on p. 187.

Changed “ἔργαστήριον” to “ἐργαστήριον” on p. 216.

Changed “ταριχος” to “τάριχος” on p. 239.

Changed “ταριχέυειν” to “ταριχεύειν” on p. 254.

Changed “Ἀφρός νιτρου” to “Ἀφρὸς νίτρου” and “Ἀφρονίτρον” to “Ἀφρόνιτρον” on p. 260.

Changed “Ἄφρο νίτρον” to “Ἀφρόνιτρον” on p. 262.

Changed “Ἀσβεστος” to “Ἄσβεστος” on p. 357.

Changed “Ἀσβεστον” to “Ἄσβεστον” on p. 358.

Changed “qnod” to “quod” on p. 358.

Changed “Bechira feu Bechiria” to “Bechira seu Bechiria” on the 2nd page of the TABLE.

Silently corrected typographical errors.

Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑ; OR, THE ART OF EMBALMING; ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that:

- • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”

- • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.

- • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.

- • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.

back

Table of Contents

- ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑ: OR, THE Art of Embalming; Wherein is shewn The Right of Burial, THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES, And the several Ways of Preserving Dead Bodies IN Most Nations of the WORLD. With an Account of The particular Opinions, Experiments and Inventions of modern Physicians, Surgeons, Chymists and Anatomists. ALSO Some new Matter propos’d concerning a better Method of Embalming than hath hitherto been discover’d. AND A Pharmacopœia Galeno-Chymica, Anatomia sicca sive incruenta, &c.

- CONTENTS
- To the Right Honourable THOMAS
- THE PREFACE.

- A List of such Noblemen and Gentlemen as have been pleas’d to Encourage this Work with Sculptures.

- A List of such Noblemen and Gentlemen as have been pleas’d to Encourage this Work by Subscriptions.

- Amico admodum colendo D. THOMÆ GREENHILL eximiam suam ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑΝ edenti χαίρειν καὶ εὐπραγεῖν.

- Viro Admodùm Erudito Thomæ Greenhill, Chirurgo in ΝΕΚΡΟΚΗΔΕΙΑΝ, sive Artem Pollincturæ, ab illo editam.

- TO HIS Ingenious Friend Mr. Thomas Greenhill.

- To his Friend the Author.

- ERRATA.

- LETTER I.

- LETTER II.

- LETTER III.

- A CATALOGUE OF Authors quoted in this Book.

- THE TABLE

- TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

- THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE